ELEMENTS 


HISTORY, 


ANCIENT   AND    MODERN. 


Bt  JOSEPH   E.  WOKCESTEE,  LL.  D. 


▲  MKW  BDITIOV,  BBVISBD  AND  BMLABOBD. 


BOSTON: 
WILLIAM    J.     REYNOLDS    &  CO 

24     CORNniLL. 

1854. 


imnTtrii-r  MUMJliiimniiilf  irinlr 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1849,  by 
J.    E.    WORCESTEE, 

In  tba  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachiuetta. 

City  op  Boston, 
In  School  Committee,  April  9,  1850. 
Oedered,  That  Worcester's  History  be  substituted  for  "  Par- 
ker's Outlines  of  History,"  as  a  Text  Book  for  the  Grammar 
Schools. 

Attest, 

S.  F.  McCLEARY,  Jr.,  Secretary. 

The  new  edition  of  Worcester's  History  has  also  been  adopt- 
ed in  the  Grammar  Schools  of  the  cities  of  Worcester,  Salem, 
Cambridge,  Roxbury,  and  many  other  cities  and  towns  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  It  is  also  required  in  the  examination  of 
candidates  for  admission  into  the  Freshman  Class  at  Harvard 
College. 


StaeR 
Annex 

S 
070 


c 


W-  ^  ''■  \  G 


PREFACE. 


The  first  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  1826, 
accompanied  by  an  Historical  Atlas.  The  Elements  of 
History  and  the  Atlas  were  designed  to  be  used  to- 
gether each  being  materially  incomplete  without  the 
other.  But  as  it  is  necessary  that  books  used  in  most 
of  the  schools  in  this  country  should  be  furnished  at  a 
very  low  price,  the  expense  of  the  Atlas  was,  in  many 
cases,  an  obstacle  to  the  use  of  the  work ;  and  after  the 
Elements  and  Atlas  had  passed  through  a  number  of 
impressions,  an  edition  of  the  book  was  prepared  in 
such  a  form  that  it  might  be  used  without  the  Atlas. 
This  was  accomplished  by  folding  in  the  volume  the 
Chart  of  General  History,  and  also  by  inserting  a  se- 
ries of  Tables  of  History,  which,  in  a  measure,  supply 
the  place  of  the  Charts  or  Tables  of  History  in  the 
Atlas. 

The  method  of  using  the  work  will  be  found  sim- 
ple and  easy.  After  the  student  has  attended  to  the 
three  short  sections  on  the  UseSy  Sources,  and  Di- 
visions of  History,  it  is  recommended  that  he  should 
study  carefully  the  Cha/rt  of  History,  with  the  use  of  the 
Description,  Illustration,  and  Questions.   (See  page  333.) 


IV  PREFACE. 

By  this  means  he  will  have  the  general  outlines  of 
history,  with  the  periods  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
principal  states  and  empires,  impressed  on  his  mind ; 
and  by  having  thus  gained  a  comprehensive  view  of 
the  whole  ground,  he  will  be  prepared  to  study  the 
particular  parts  with  greater  advantage.  The  Tables 
of  Grecian,  Roman,  French,  English,  and  American 
History  are  designed  to  be  attended  to  in  connection 
with  the  portions  of  the  volume  relating  to  the  history 
of  Greece,  Rome,  France,  England,  and  the  United 
States  respectively. 

The  outlines  of  history  may  be  acquired  with  in- 
comparably greater  facility  by  the  use  of  Charts  and 
Tables,  than  by  the  perusal  of  volumes,  independently 
of  such  aid ;  and,  what  is  of  great  importance,  the 
information  thus  obtained  will  be  so  impressed  on 
the  mind,  as  to  be  much  more  durable  than  if  acquired 
by  any  other  method.  By  means  of  them  one  may 
easily  trace  the  rise,  progress,  revolutions,  decline,  and 
fall  of  states  and  empires ;  see  what  states  have 
been  contemporary,  and  what  have  existed  at  differ- 
ent periods ;  take  comprehensive  views  of  the  whole 
ground  of  history,  and  comparative  views  of  the  par- 
ticular parts ;  mark  the  succession  of  the  different  dy- 
nasties and  sovereigns  in  the  different  kingdoms  and 
empii'es ;  learn  the  leading  events  of  the  several  reigns 
and  of  different  ages,  and  observe  the  periods  when 
the  most  illustrious  persons  have  flourished. 

But  for  a  knowledge  of  the  internal  condition  and 
history  of  a  state,  the  particular  details  of  events,  with 


PREFACE.  V 

their  causes  and  consequences,  and  the  exploits  of  in- 
dividuals wJio  have  figured  upon  the  theatre  of  the 
world,  recourse  must  be  had  to  other  sources  of  infor- 
mation. In  order,  therefore,  that  the  study  of  history 
may  be  pursued  to  the  best  advantage,  and  a  proper 
attention  be  paid  to  the  connection  both  of  time  and 
of  subject,  the  use  of  charts  should  be  united  with  that 
of  historical  naiTative. 

As  it  would  be  impossible,  in  a  volume  of  the  size 
of  this,  to  trace  a  regular  series  of  events  relating  to  all 
the  states  and  empires  that  have  flourished  in  the 
world,  the  cliief  attention  of  the  author  has  been  paid 
to  a  few  of  them,  —  those  of  which  the  history  is  of  the 
greatest  importance,  particularly  to  American  students, 
—  namely,  Greece  and  Rome  in  ancient  history,  and 
France,  England,  and  the  United  States,  in  modern. 
Brief  notices,  however,  of  various  other  states  have 
been  given,  and  also  some  short  treatises  on  topics  of 
importance  in  an  inti'oduction  to  the  study  of  his- 
tory, and  useful  in  preparing  the  student  for  the  perusal 
of  more  extended  historical  works. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  Elements,  the  author  has 
endeavored  to  unite  so  much  of  reflection  with  the  de- 
tails of  facts,  as  to  assist,  the  reader  in  forming  correct 
views  of  the  causes  and  consequences  of  events;  and 
in  order  to  render  the  worlc  more  interesting,  he  has,  in 
some  instances,  introduced  short  anecdotes  and  memo- 
rable observations  of  distinguished  men  on  important 
occasions. 

Every  one,  much  conversant  with  history,  must  be 


fl  PREFACE. 

aware  of  the  frequent  and  often  great  diversity  in  the 
accounts  given  of  the  characters  of  men  and  events, 
even  by  authors  of  reputation.  This  diversity  is  to  be 
attributed  partly  to  the  peculiar  principles  and  preju- 
dices of  the  historians,  and  partly  to  the  contradictory 
statements  in  the  original  som'ces  of  history. 

As  the  line  of  truth  is,  in  sojnany  cases,  obscm-e  and 
difficult  to  be  discovered,  the  author  cannot  hope  that 
he  has  in  no  instances  fallen  into  error.  It  has,  how- 
ever, been  his  object  to  follow  the  best  guides,  and  to 
give  true  impressions  of  the  character  of  persons  and 
transactions,  so  far  as  they  came  under  review ;  but  as 
information  has  been  derived  from  such  a  multiplicity 
of  som'ces,  it  would  be  impossible  for  him,  were  it  de- 
sirable, to  give  a  complete  enumeration  of  his  author- 
ities. 

This  little  work  has  passed  through  numerous  edi- 
tions, and  has  received  a  large  measure  of  the  public 
approbation  and  patronage.  It  has  now  been  revised, 
somewhat  enlarged,  better  fitted  to  be  used  indepen- 
dently of  the  Atlas,  and  the  historical  information 
brought  down  to  a  recent  date.  The  author  hopes 
that  it  will  be  found,  in  its  present  form,  less  unwor- 
thy of  the  favor  with  which  it  has  been  received. 

CAMBr.iDGE,  December,  1849.  ^   / J^^   y/Y  J- 


iHt 


'? 


CONTENTS.  tal 

Fbance : — 

(S'cc/ion  VI.  Louis  XV. ;  Louis  XVI. :  — The  Kcvolution         .        152 
Vn.  The  Revolution  continued :  —  Robespierre ;  Bonaparte ; 
Euro])can  War :  Bonaparte  dethioned,  and  the  Bour- 
bon Family  restored 157 

VIII.  Louis  X  Vm. ;  Cliarles  X. :  —  Revolution  of  1 830 ;  Louis 
Philippe:  —  Revolution,  of  1848;   Republican   Con- 
stitution; Louis  Napoleon,  President        .         .        .166 
Chronological  Table  of  French  History,  No.  1  173 

Chronological  Table  of  French  History,  No.  2    .         .174 

England : — 

Section  I.  The  History  of  England :  The  Roman  Conquest :  The 

Saxon  Conquest :  The  Heptarchy         .         .         .         1 75 
n.  From  the  Foundation  of  the  Monarchy  under  Egbert 

to  the  Norman  Conquest 177 

ni.  The  Norman  Family :  —  William  I.,  the  Conqueror;  Wil- 
liam II. ;  Henry  I. ;  Stephen         ....         180 
IV.  Famihj  of  Plantaqmet :  —  Henry  II. ;  Richard  I. ;  John ; 
Henry  III. ;  Edward  I. ;  Edward  II. ;  Edward  IH. ; 

Richard  H 182 

V.  Branch  of  Lancaster:  —  Hemy   IV.;   Henry  V.;  Hen- 

17  Vi 192 

VI.  Branch  of  Fort :  — Edward  IV.;  Edward  V.;  Richard 

m .195 

vn.  The  Tudor  Famil>/:  — Henry  VII.;  Hemy  VHI.;  Ed- 
ward VI.;  Mary;  Elizabeth         .        .        .        .        197 
Vin.  Tlie  Stuart   Famili/: —James    I.;    Charles  I.:  — The 
Commonwealth;    Cromwell:  —  Charles   II.;   James 
n. ;  William  and  Mary ;  Anne     ....        206 
IX.  House  of  Brunsivick: — George  I.;  George  II. ;  George 

in.  ;■  George  IV. ;  William  IV.;  Victoria  .  .  221 
Table  of  the  History  of  England,  No.  1  .  .  .  227 
Table  of  the  Histoiy  of  England,  No.  2  .  .  .  228 
Chronological  Table  of  English  Literature       .        .        229 

Remarks  on  the  Tables 230 

EcKOPEAN  States       231 

Scotland 231 

Germany 232 

Austria 234 

Spain 235 

Portugal 237 

The  Netherlands 238 

Poland 239 

Sweden 240 

Denmark 241 

Prussia -^^v       242 

Russia \    \-    243 

Rome '    .        244 

Turret 245 

Sovereigns  of  Gennany,  Spain,  Sweden,  Prussia,  and 

Russia 247 

Names  distinguished  in  Italian,  French,  Spanish,  (3er- 

man,  &c.,  Literature 248 

Remarks  on  the  preceding  Table      ....        249 


X  CONTENTS. 

Amkrioa.  —  Discovery  and  Settlement:  —  Columbus,  Americus, 
Cabot,  &c. :  Conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru ;  —  Cortes, 
Pizarro,  &c 251 

The  United  States:  — 
Section  I.  Settlement  and  Early  History  of  the  Colonies :  —  Vir- 
ginia ;  New  York ;  Colonies  of  New  England ;  In- 
dian Wars ;  Maryland ;  Pennsylvania  .  .  259 
II.  Oppressive  Measures  relating  to  the  Colonies:  French 
Wars ;  Capture  of  Louisburg ;  Expedition  against 
New  England;  Conquest  of  Canada    .         .         .        271 

III.  Disputes  between  Great  Britain  and  the  Colonies ;  Com- 

mencement of  Hostilities ;  Battles  of  Lexington  and 
Bunker  Hill;  Declaration  of  Independence         .        277 

IV.  Eevolutionary  War  continued :  —  Battles  of  Brooklyn, 

White  Plains,  Trenton,  Princeton,  Bennington, 
Brandywine,  Germantown,  Stillwater;  Surrender 
at  Saratoga ;  Battles  of  Monmouth,  Ehode  Island, 
Camden,  Cow-Pens,  Guilford,  Eutaw  Springs ;  Sur- 
render at  Yorktown :  —  Independence  acknowledged  287 
V.  The  Army  disbanded :  The  Constitution  formed :  Wash- 
ington's Administi-ation :  Adams's  Administi-ation  298 
VI.  Jefferson's  Administration :  Madison's  Administration ; 
War  with  Great  Britain :  —  Monroe's  Administration : 

.    Adams's  Administration 303 

Section  VH.  Jackson's  Administration :   Van  Buren's  Administra- 
tion :    Harrison :  —  Tyler's    Administration :   Polk's 
Administration;  War  with  Mexico: — Taylor        .    313 
Chronological   Table   of  the   History   of  the   United 

States 326 

Events  of  the  Eevolutionai-y  War        ....    327 
Chronology  of  Improvements  ....        328 

Distinguished  Americans  329 

Population  of  the  United  States     ....        330 

CHART  OF  HISTORY.  — Description  and  Illnstration    .        .       333 

CHRONOLOGY 339 

Chronological  Table 341 

SACRED  HISTORY 343 

Chronological  Table  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Israel  and 

Jadah 344 

Chronological  Table  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel,  or  the 
Ten  Tribes 345 

Ekas  in  Modern  Histokt 346 

CnBONOLOGiCAL  Table  of  Inventions 347 

QUESTIONS  adapted  to  the  Use  of  the  Book     ....       349 


CONTENTS. 


ELEMENTS  OF  HISTORY. 

PAOB 

Uses  of  History 1 

Sources  of  History  3 

Divisions  of  History     . .4 

ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Egypt 7 

The  PncENiciANS 10 

Assyria  and  Babylon 11 

Persia 13 

Greece : — 

Section  I.  The  Country  and  the  People 15 

n.  The  History  of  Greece  divided  into  Periods    .        .        .16 
m.  The  Fabulous  Age:  Foundation  of  Cities  and  Institu- 
tions: Argonautic  Expedition  .         .         .        .         17 
IV.  The  Heroic  Age:  Trojan  "War:  Return  of  the  Heraclidae    18 
v.  Sparta  or  Laccdsemon :  Institutions  of  Lyenrgus         .        20 
VI.  Athens :  Codrus :  Draco :   Solon  and   his   Institutions : 

Pisisti-atus :  Pisistratida3 22 

Vn.  Greece  invaded  by  the  Persians  under  Darius:  Battle 
of  Marathon:  Miltiades:  Persian  Invasion  under 
Xerxes:  Themistoclcs :  Aristides:  Battle  of  Ther- 
mopylai:    Leonidas:    Battles    of    Salamis,    Platsea, 

and  Mycale:  Ciraon 24 

VIII.  Peloponnesian  War :  Pericles :  Alcibiadcs :  Battle  of 
^gos-Potamos :  Lysander :  TJiirty  Tyrants :  Soc- 
rates: Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand:  Peace  of 
Antalcidas :  Thebes :  Epaminondas :  Battles  of  Lenc- 
ti'a  and  Mantinea:  Agesilaus  ....  30 
IX.  Philip  of  Macedon:  Sacred  War:  Battle  of  Chsero- 
nea:  Alexander  the  Great:  Conquest  of  Persia: 
Battles  of  the  Granicus,  Issus,  and  Ai-bela:  Alex- 
ander's Death 34 

X.  Alexander's  Successors:  Demosthenes:  Phocion:  De- 
metrius Phalereus:  Ach£Ean  League:  Philopoemen: 
Subjugation  of  Macedonia  and  of  Greece        .        .    40 

XI.  Greci^  Antiquities 44 

Chronological  Table  of  Grecian  History        .        .        .51 

Chronological  Table  of  Grecian  Literature         .        .        52 

Stbia  uwder  the  Seleucid^ 58 

BaTPT  tTNDER  THE  pTOLEMIKS 55 


vfal  CONTENTS. 

Rohb: — 

Section  I.  Roman  History :  Foundation  of  Rome :  Romulus :  Nu- 
ma:  Tiillus  Ilostilius:  Ancus  Martius:  Tarquinius 
Priscus :  Scrvius  Tullius:  Tarquinius  Superbus, — 
expelled,  and  the  regal  Government  abolished        .        58 

II.  The  Commonwealth :  —  Consuls,  Collatinus  and  Brutus : 

Valerius :  Porsenna :  Dictator :  The  Plebeians  en- 
camp on  Mons  Sacer :  Tribunes  :  Coriolanus  :  Law 
of  Volero :  Cincinnatus  :  The  Twelve  Tables :  De- 
cemvirs: Appius  Claudius 61 

III.  Military   Tribunes :  Censors :    Veil  desti'oyed :   Camil- 

lus  :  Rome  burnt  by  the  Gauls  :  Brennus :  Manlius : 
The  Samnites :  Pyrrhus  :  Conquest  of  Italy      .         .     66 

IV   Carthage  and  Sicily 69 

V.  First  Punic  War ;  Eegulus :  Second  Punic  "War ;  Han- 
nibal :  Conquest  of  Macedonia :  Third  Punic  War ; 
Carthage  desti'oyed :  Conquest  of  Greece      .        .        70 
VI.  The    Gracchi:    Jugurtha:    Social   War:   Mithridates: 
Marius    and    Sylla:    Servile    War:   Conspiracy   of 

Catiline 75 

Vn.  First  Triumvirate:  Civil  War  of  CiEsar  and  Pompey: 
Second  Triumvirate :  Dissolution  of  the  Common- 

^^       wealth    . 78 

Vm.  Eome  under  the  Emperors:  —  The  CiEsars;   Augustus, 
Tiberius,   Caligula,    Claudius,    Nero,    Galba,   Otho, 
Vitellius,  Vespasian,  Titus,  and  Domitian  .        86 

IX.  Nerva:    Trajan:    Adrian:    Antoninus   Pius:    Marcus 

Aurelius  Antoninus   ...  ...    91 

X.  From  Commodus  to  Constantine        ....        94 

XI.  From  Constantine  to  the  Extinction  of  the  Western 

Empire 96 

Xn.  The  Kingdom  of  the  Heruli,  of  the  Goths,  and  of  the 
^^       Lombards. —  The  Eastern  Empire,  to  its  Extinction      99 

Xm.  Roman  Antiquities  101 

Chronological  Table  of  Roman  History,  No.  1     .         .     108 
Chronological  Table  of  Roman  History,  No.  2  .        109 

Chronological  Table  of  Roman  Literature  .        .110 

THE  MIDDLE  AGES  Ill 

The  Arabs  or  Saracens 112 

The  Feudal  System 117 

The  Crusades 119 

Chivalry 124 

MODERN  HISTORY 131 

France : — 

Section  1.  Merovingian  Kings:  —  Charlemagne,  &c.  .         .        133 

n.  Capetian  Kings,  —  fi-om  Hugh  Capet  to  Philip  VL  of 

Valois 136 

m.  BrancJi  of  FaZojs ;  — Philip  VI.;  John  H.;  Charles  V.; 
Charles   VL;    Charles   VII.;   Louis   XI.;    Charles 

Vni -.        .        .        139 

IV.  Louis  xn. ;  Francis  I. ;  Henry  II. ;  iVancis  n. ;  Charles 

IX.;  Henry  ni .        142 

V.  House  of  Bourbon.  —  Henry  IV. ;  Louis   xm. ;  Louis 

XIV 147 


ELEMENTS  OF  HISTOHY. 


USES   OF  HISTORY. 

1.  History  is  a  narrative  of  past  events.  The  study  of  it 
:s  attractive  botli  to  the  young  and  the  old,  to  the  unreflecting 
and  the  philosophical  mind.  It  combines  amusement  of  the 
deepest  interest ;  the  exercise  and  improvement  of  the  best 
faculties  of  man ;  and  the  acquisition  of  the  most  important 
species  of  knowledge. 

2.  History,  considered  merely  as  a  source  of  amusement, 
has  great  advantages  over  novels  and  romances,  the  perusal 
of  which  too  often  debilitates  the  mind  by  inflaming  the 
imagination,  and  corrupts  the  heart  by  infusing  what  may 
justly  b^  regarded  as  moral  poison.  Like  works  of  fiction, 
history  sei*ves  to  amuse  the  imagination  and  interest  the  pas- 
sions, not  always,  indeed,  in  an  equal  degree ;  yet  it  is  free 
from  the  corrupting  tendencies  which  too  often  belong  to 
novels,  and  has  a  great  superiority  over  them,  inasmuch  as 
it  rests  on  the  basis  of  fact. 

3.  The  love  of  novelty  and  of  excitement  is  natural  to  man  ; 
hence  the  general  taste  for  history,  though  its  details  are  not 
unfrcquently  painful.  It  aflords  a  melanclioly  view  of  humar» 
nature,  governed  by  the  baser  passions ;  and  is,  to  a  lament- 
able extent,  little  else  than  a  register  of  human  crime  ana 
calamity,  of  war  and  suffering. 

4.  A  higher  use  of  history  is,  to  improve  the  understandirtg 
and  strengthen  the  judgment.  It  has  been  styled  philosophy 
teaching  by  example  ;  or  moral  philosophy  exemplified  by  the 
lives  and  actions  of  men.  It  adds  to  our  own  experience  an 
immense  treasure  of  the  experience  of  others,  and  thereby 
enables  us  to  enter  upon  the  business  of  life  with  the  advan- 
tage of  being,  in  a  manner,  acquainted  with  it. 

1 


2  USES  OF  HISTORY. 

5.  It  makes  us  acquainted  with  human  nature,  and  enables 
us  to  judge  how  men  will  act  in  given  circumstances,  and  to 
trace  the  connection  between  cause  and  efTect  in  human  affairs. 
It  serves  to  free  the  mind  from  many  narrow  and  hurtful  prej- 
udices;  to  teach  us  to  admire  what  is  praiseworthy,  wherever 
it  may  be  found ;  and  to  compare,  on  enlarged  and  liberal 
principles,  other  ages  and  countries  with  our  own. 

6.  llistory  may  be  regarded  as  the  school  of  politics,  and, 
as  such,  some  knowledge  of  it  is  indispensable  to  rulers  and 
statesmen  ;  it  is  also  highly  important  to  every  citizen  of  a  re- 
public, in  order  to  enable  him  to  perform,  in  a  manner  honor- 
able to  himself  and  useful  to  the  community,  the  duties  of  a 
freeman.  By  history  we  gain  our  knowledge  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  society ;  of  the  reciprocal  influence  of  national  charac- 
ter, laws,  and  government ;  of  those  causes  and  circumstances 
which  have  promoted  the  rise  and  prosperity,  or  the  decline 
and  fall,  of  states  and  empires. 

7.  History  shows  us  past  ages,  triumphs  over  time,  and  pre- 
sents to  our  view  the  various  revolutions  which  have  taken 
place  in  the  world.  It  furnishes  us  with  the  wisdom  and  ex- 
perience of  our  ancestors,  exhibits  their  living  actions,  and 
enables  us  to  profit  by  their  successes  and  failures.  It  teaches 
us  what  has  been  done  for  the  melioration  of  mankind  by  the 
wisdom  of  Greece  and  Rome,  by  modern  literature  and  sci- 
ence, by  free  government,  and  by  true  religion. 

8.  It  tends  to  strengthen  the  sentiments  of  virtue.  In  its 
faithful  delineations,  vice  always  appears  odious,  and  virtue 
not  only  desii'able  and  productive  of  happiness,  but  also  favor- 
able to  ti'ue  honor  and  solid  glory.  The  reader  of  history 
learns  to  connect  true  glory,  not  with  the  possession  of  wealth 
and  power,  but  with  the  disinterested  employment  of  great 
talents  in  promoting  the  good  of  mankind. 

9.  True  history  has  numberless  relations  and  uses  as  an  ex- 
hibhion  of  the  conduct  of  Divine  Providence ;  and  it  presents 
numerous  instances  in  which  events,  important  to  the  welfare 
of  the  human  race,  have  been  brought  about  by  inconsiderable 
means,  contrary  to  the  intentions  of  those  who  were  the  prin- 
cipal agents  in  them. 

10.  A  knowledge  of  history  has  a  tendency  to  render  us 
contented  with  our  condition  in  life,  by  the  views  which  it  ex- 
hibits of  the  instability  of  human  affairs.  It  teaches  us  that 
the  highest  stations  are  not  exempt  from  severe  trials ;  that 
riches  and  power  afford  no  assurance  of  happiness ;  and  that 
the  greatest  sovereigns  have  not  unfrequently  been  more  mis- 
erable than  their  meanest  subjects. 


SOUKCLrf  or   IlKSTORV. 


SOURCES   OF  HISTORY.       • 

Some  of  the  principal  sources  of  history,  independent  of 
fiiillienlic  records,  or  the  narrative  of  those  who  were  con- 
tem])orary  witli  the  events  which  they  relate,  are  the  follow- 
ing :  — 

1.  Oral  tradition.  From  this  source  Ilerod'otus  derived 
the  greater  part  of  his  history.  It  existed  before  the  invention 
of  the  arts  of  writing,  carving,  and  painting. 

2.  Historical  poems.  These  are  common  among  all  barba- 
rous nations.  The  Biad  and  Od'ysscy  of  Homer  were  re- 
garded by  the  Greeks  as  of  historical  authority  ;  and  they 
comprise  the  only  history  extant  of  what  is  called  the  heroic 
age  of  Greece. 

3.  Visible  monuments.,  as  pillai-s,  heaps  of  stones,  and  mounds 
of  earth,  arc  used  to  perpetuate  historical  events  among  a  bar- 
barous people. 

4.  Ruins,  as  those  of  Egypt,  and  of  the  cities  of  Balbec, 
Palmy'ra,  Nin'eveh  and  Persep'olis,  are  lasting  memorials  of 
the  power,  opulence,  and  taste  of  the  builders. 

5.  Giving  names  to  countries,  towns,  SfC,  has  been  used,  in 
all  ages,  as  a  method  of  perpetuating  the  memory  of  their 
planters  or  founders. 

6.  Coins  and  medals  arc  of  great  use  in  illustrating  history, 
chronology,  geography,  and  mythology,  as  well  as  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  nations  of  antiquity.  These,  however, 
belong  to  a  people  of  some  refinement.  Ancient  coins  have 
been  found  buried  in  the  earth  at  various  times,  in  consider- 
able quantities.  Vast  numbers  are  now  preserved  belonging 
to  different  ages.  The  most  ancient  of  those  of  which  the  an- 
tiquity can  be  ascertained  belong  to  the  5th  century  before  the 
Christian  era. 

7.  Inscriptions  on  marbles.  The  most  celebrated  collection 
of  marbles,  made  use  of  for  the  illustration  of  ancient  history, 
is  that  which  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  University  of 
Oxford,  in  England,  and  which  was  brought  from  Greece  by 
the  earl  of  Arundel,  and  from  him  called  the  Arundeliaa 
Marbles. 

8.  The  most  important  of  these  inscriptions  is  the  Chronicle 
of  Paros,  which  contains  the  chronology  of  Athens  from  the 
time  of  Cecrops,  B.  C.  1582,  to  B.  C.  264,  at  which  latter 
period  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  compiled.  The  authority 
of  this  Chronicle  has  been  called  in  question  by  a  number  of 
learned  men ;  but  it  has  been  supported  by  many  others,  and 


4  DIVISIONS  OF   IIISTORY. 

the  chronology  of  Greece,  at  present  most  generally  received, 
has  been,  in  a  great  measure,  founded  upon  it. 

9.  The  Hieroglyphics,  PainLings,  and  Sculptures  which  yet 
remain  on  the  ruins  of  Egypt  and  Assyria,  the  greater  part  of 
which  have  been  but  recently  discovered,  and  only  partially 
deciphered,  have  added  largely  to  our  knowledge  of  the  his- 
tory, manners,  and  customs  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  those 
countries. 


DIVISIONS   OF   HISTORY. 

1.  History,  with  respect  to  time,  is  divided  into  Ancient  and 
Modern. 

2.  Ancient  History  is  the  history  of  the  world  from  the 
creation,  to  the  establishment  of  the  New  Empire  of  the  West 
under  Charlemagne,  A.  D.  800.  Modern  History  embraces 
all  the  time  subsequent  to  that  period. 

3.  Some  historians,  however,  adopt  the  Christian  era,  and 
others  the  subversion  of  the  Western  Empire  of  the  Romans, 
A.  D.  476,  for  the  dividing  point  between  Ancient  and  Modern 
History. 

4.  A  third  division  of  history,  which  is  often  considered  as 
distinct  from  ancient  and  modern,  is  that  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
This  period  comprises  about  a  thousand  years,  from  the  5th  to 
the  15th  century  ;  or  from  the  subversion  of  the  Western  Em- 
pire of  the  Romans  to  that  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 

5.  The  Middle  Ages  embrace  the  time  intervening  between 
the  extinction  of  ancient  literature  and  the  appearance  of  mod- 
ern literature.  During  this  period  Europe  was  sunk  in  igno- 
rance and  barbarism  ;  hence  it  is  often  styled  the  Dark  Ages. 

6.  Ancient  History  is  distinguished  by  the  four  great  mon- 
archies of  Assyria  or  Bahylon,  Persia,  Greece  or  Macedonia, 
and  Rome. 

7.  The  Middle  Ages  are  characterized  by  the  origin  and 
progress  of  Mahometanism  and  the  Saracen  Empire,  the  preva- 
lence of  the  Feudal  System,  the  Crusades,  and  Chivalry. 

8.  Modern  Histoiy  is  distinguished  by  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder,  and  the  consequent  change  in  the  mode  of  war ;  the 
discovery  of  America,  and  the  extension  of  commerce  ;  the  in- 
vention of  the  art  o? printing,  the  revival  of  learning,  and  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge ;  also  by  the  reformation  in  religion,  and 
a  variety  of  other  improvements  in  the  state  of  society.  — ^The 
last  half  century  has  been  characterized  by  important  political 


DIVISIONS  OF  HISTORY.  5 

revolutions  and  moi-cments  in  society,  resulting  in  the  overthrow 
o^  absolute  monarchies^  and  in  the  establishment  of  democratic 
or  liberal  principles  of  goC'ernment,  in  place  of  arbitrary  or 
despotic  principles;  in  the  progress  of  various  sciences,  the 
multiplication  o^  books  and  periodical  publications,  and  a  wide 
diffusion  of  intelligence  among  the  masses  of  the  people  ;  in 
great  improvements  in  the  7necha7i.ic  arts,  and  the  application 
of  steam-power  to  machinery  ;  and  in  the  formation  of  numer- 
ous benevolent  societies,  which  have  for  their  object  the  propa- 
gation of  Christianity,  the  alleviation  of  the  suffering,  the 
amelioration  of  the  condition  and  the  elevation  of  the  character 
of  the  human  race. 

9.  History,  with  regard  to  the  nature  of  its  subjects,  is  di- 
vided into  Sacred  and  Profane,  Ecclesiastical  and  Civil. 

10.  Sacred  History  is  the  history  contained  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  it  relates  cliiefly  to  the  Israelites  or  Jews.  Profane 
History  is  the  history  of  ancient  heathen  nations,  and  is  found 
chiefly  in  the  writings  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Ecclesias- 
tical History  is  the  history  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  or  of  Chris- 
tianity, from  its  first  promulgation  to  the  present  time.  Civil 
History  is  the  history  of  the  various  nations,  states,  and  em- 
pires, that  have  a])pcarcd  in  the  world,  exhibiting  a  view  of 
their  wars,  revolutions,  and  changes. 

11.  Sacred  History  goes  back  to  the  remotest  period  of  time, 
and  commences  with  an  account  of  the  creation  of  the  world, 
which,  according  to  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Scriptures,  took 
place  4004  years  before  the  Christian  era;  accorc'ng  to  the 
Samaritan  text,  4700  ;  according  to  the  Septuagint,  5. -72  ;  and 
according  to  the  computation  of  Dr.  Hales,  5411.  Tre  com- 
putation according  to  the  Hebrew  text,  which  gives  400  I  from 
the  creation  to  the  Christian  era,  and  1656  from  the  creation  to 
the  deluge,  is  the  one  commonly  received  in  English  literature, 
though  the  correctness  of  it  is  now  generally  called  in  question 
by  learned  men. 

12.  The  modern  science  of  Geology,  which  has  brought  to 
light  a  vast  number  of  important  and  interesting  facts  previ- 
ously unknown,  has  produced  a  conviction  among  men  of  sci- 
ence that  the  origin  of  the  earth  is  to  be  ascribed  to  a  period 
far  more  remote  than  has  been  heretofore  supposed,  and  the 
most  leai'ned  Christian  divines  have  adopted  a  mode  of  inter- 
preting the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation  which  is  in  accord- 
ance with  this  opinion. 

13.  The  earliest  profane  historian,  whose  works  are  extant, 
is  Herod'otus,  who  is  styled  the  Father  of  History.  His  his- 
tory was  composed  about  4 15  years  B.  C,  and  comprises  every- 
thing which  he  had  an  opportunitv  of  learning  respecting  the 

I* 


6  DIVISIONS  OF  HISTORY. 

Egyptians,  Persians,  Greeks,  lonians,  Lydians,  Lycians,  and 
Macedonians,  from  about  the  year  713  to  479  before  the  Chris- 
tian era. 

14.  With  regard,  tliercfore,  to  all  the  preceding  ages  of  the 
work),  Aviiicli,  reci<oning  from  the  creation  to  the  time  when 
the  narrative  of  Ilerod'otus  begins,  comprise,  according  to  the 
common  chronology,  nearly  3300  years,  there  exist  bo  docu- 
ments, with  the  exception  of  the  Scriptures,  really  deseiving 
the  name  of  histoiy.  The  accounts  which  have  been  given 
of  the  events  of  this  long  series  of  ages,  comprising  more  than 
half  of  the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  origin  of  the  hu- 
man race,  were  drawn  up  by  writers  who  lived  long  after  the 
transactions  of  wliich  they  treat,  and  were  compiled  from  scat- 
tered records,  fragments,  and  traditions. 

15.  Our  knowledge,  of  course,  of  the  early  history  of  the 
world,  the  first  settlement  of  the  different  portions  of  it,  the 
primitive  state  of  society,  and  the  progress  of  mankind  in  the 
remotest  ages,  is  extremely  limited.  Tlie  Scriptures  are  the 
only  authentic  source  of  information  on  these  subjects.  The 
facts  which  they  record,  though  not  sufficiently  numerous  to 
satisfy  curiosity,  are  yet,  in  the  highest  degree,  interesting  and 
important. 

16.  Some  of  the  most  remarkable  events,  previous  to  the 
commencement  of  profane  history,  recorded  in  the  Bible,  are 
the  creation  of  the  world,  the  fall  of  man,  the  deluge,  the  dis- 
persion of  mankind  at  Babel,  the  planting  of  dilFerent  nations, 
the  call  of  Abraham,  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  out  of 
Egypt,  and  their  settlement  in  Canaan. 

17.  The  histories  of  Gi^eece  and  Rome  are  far  the  best 
known,  most  interesting,  and  most  important  portions  of 
ancient   profane   history. 

18.  There  is  much  obscurity  hanging  over  the  history  of 
the  Middle  or  Dark  Ages. 

19.  The  portions  of  history  best  known  are  those  which  re- 
late to  modern  civilized  nations,  during  the  last  three  centuries. 


[  The  Chakt  of  History,  %cMch  is  found  in  this  volume^ 
together  with  the  Description  and  Illustration,  leginning 
with  the  SS3d  page,  may  noio  be  advantageously  attended  io.] 


[For  some  remarks  on  Sacred  History,  and  Tables  of  the 
History  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  see  pages  343, 
344,  and  345.] 


EGYPT. 


EGYPT. 

1.  Egypt  holds  a  conspicuous  place  in  history,  on  account 
of  its  great  anti([uity  and  early  attainments  in  the  arts.  It  has 
been  styled  the  cradle  of  the  sciences,  and  it  claims  the  honor 
of  the  invention  of  the  art  of  writing.  At  a  period  when 
Greece  and  Italy  were  immersed  in  barbarism,  Egypt  could 
boast  of  arts,  learning,  and  civilization.  It  was  the  principal 
source  from  which  the  Greeks  derived  their  information ; 
and,  after  all  its  windings  and  enlargements,  we  may  still 
trace  the  stream  of  our  knowledge  to  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

2.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  we  have  the  means  of  ob- 
taining but  little  knowledge  respecting  the  ancient  history  of 
Egypt.  The  early  dynasties  of  the  kingdom  are  involved  in 
obscurity,  and  history  throws  little  light  on  the  building  of  its 
most  ancient  cities,  or  the  construction  of  those  magnificent 
monuments,  which  show  to  how  high  a  state  of  improvement 
the  inhabitants,  at  a  remote  period,  had  carried  the  arts,  and 
which  still  continue  to  be  objects  of  admiration  and  astonish- 
ment. 

3.  The  mo?t  celebrated  of  these  works  of  ancient  grandeur 
are,  Lake  Maris,  an  immense  artificial  reservoir ;  the  Laby- 
rinth, an  enormous  structure  of  marble,  built  under  ground  ; 
the  Catacomhs,  or  Mummy-pits,  subterraneous  galleries,  of 
prodigious  extent,  appropriated  to  the  reception  of  the  dead  ; 
and  the  Pyramids,  a  wonder  both  of  the  ancient  and  the 
modern  world. 

4.  The  glory  of  Thebes,  a  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  famous  for 
its  hundred  gates,  the  theme  and  admiration  of  ancient  poets 
and  historians,  belongs  to  a  period  prior  to  the  commence- 
ment of  authentic  history.  It  is  recorded  only  in  the  dim 
lights  of  poetry  and  tradition,  which  might  be  suspected  of 
fable,  did  not  such  mighty  witnesses  to  their  truth  remain. 

5.  Before  the  time  of  Ilerod'otus,  Memphis  had  supplanted 
Thebes,  and  the  Ptol'emies  afterwards  removed  the  seat  of  em- 
pire to  Alexan'drin.  Strabo  and  Diodo'rus  described  Thebes 
under  the  name  of  Dios'polis,  and  gave  such  magnificent  de- 
scriptions of  its  monuments,  as  caused  their  fidelity  to  be  called 
in  question,  till  the  observations  of  modern  travellers  proved 
their  accounts  to  have  fallen  short  of  the  reality. 

6.  The  place  of  alphabetic  writing  was  supplied,  in  ancient 
Egypt,  by  those  rude  pictures  of  visible  objects,  known  by  the 
name  of  hieroglyphics,  a  multitude  of  which  are  still  found 
sculptured  on  the  remains  of  her  ancient  temples,  obelisks, 
and  other  monuments. 


8  EGYPT. 

7.  The  researclics  of  Champollion,  and  various  other  learned 
men  of  tlie  present  century,  have  succeeded,  to  some  extent,  in 
dcciplicring  these  hieroglyphics.  By  means  of  this  interpre- 
tation, great  additions  have  been  made  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  Egypt  and  the  manners  and  customs  of  its  people. 

8.  It  appears  that  the  Egyptians  were  a  mixture  of  races, 
differing  considerably  in  color  and  organization,  the  lower 
classes  having  dark  skins  and  frizzled  hair,  while  the  upper 
ranks  possessed  light  complexions  and  agreeable  features. 
Tlie  predominant  color  of  the  population,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  brown  or  yellow.  The  nation  was  divided  into 
seven  strictly  defined  hereditary  castes,  each  of  which  had  its 
peculiar  rank  and  privileges.  The  priests  and  soldiers  formed 
the  two  highest  castes.  Then  followed  the  agriculturists,  the 
traders,  the  mariners,  and  the  artisans.  The  lowest  caste  was 
that  of  the  shepherds,  who  were  held  in  general  detestation. 

9.  The  government  was  an  hereditary  monarchy,  in  which 
the  power  of  the  sovereign  was  limited  by  established  forms 
and  usages,  and  by  the  influence  of  the  priestly  caste.  The 
Kings,  or  Pharaohs,  as  they  were  called,  belonged  exclusively 
to  the  caste  of  soldiers,  until,  at  a  late  period  in  the  decline  of 
the  monarchy,  a  priest  named  Sethos  usurped  the  crown. 

10.  The  laws  of  Egypt  appear  to  have  been  few,  and  gen- 
erally, as  far  as  known,  founded  in  justice.  The  punishments 
for  crimes  against  the  person  were  moi'c  severe  than  for  crimes 
against  property.  Murder  was  punished  with  death,  as  was 
also  the  witnessing  a  murder  without  endeavoring  to  prevent 
it.  A  child  who  killed  his  parent  was  tortured,  and  then  burnt 
alive ;  while  a  parent  who  kilfed  his  child  was  only  imprisoned 
lor  three  days  with  the  dead  body.  Debtors  were  not  im- 
prisoned, though  the  creditors  could  seize  their  goods ;  nor 
could  a  debt,  without  a  written  acknowledgment  to  prove  it, 
be  recovered  at  law,  if  the  person  from  whom  it  was  claimed 
denied  it  upon  oath. 

11.  Every  person,  not  excepting  the  king,  was,  immedi- 
ately after  his  death,  subjected  to  a  trial,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  he  was  worthy  of  funeral  rites.  His  whole  life  passed 
in  review,  and,  if  pronounced  virtuous,  his  embalmed  body 
was,  with  various  marks  of  honor,  deposited  in  a  sepulchre, 
wliich  was  often  constructed  at  great  expense ;  but  if  his  life 
had  been  vicious,  or  if  he  had  died  in  debt,  he  was  left  un- 
buried,  and  was  supposed  to  be  deprived  of  future  happiness. 

12.  The  Eg3''ptians  from  an  early  period  maintained  a  regu 
lar  standing  army,  a  large  and  important  portion  of  which  con- 
sisted of  warriors  who  fought  in  chariots.  Their  troops  were 
weW  armed  and  organized,  and  were  levied  by  conscription, 


EGYPT.  9 

like  the  armies  of  most  countries  of  Europe  at  the  present 
day.  The  bow  was  considered  the  national  weapon,  and  was 
used  willi  groat  force  and  skill  by  the  Egyptians. 

13.  Tlie  first  king  of  Egypt  known  in  history  was  Menes, 
whose  capital  was  the  city  of  This  in  Upper  Egypt.  Under 
his  successors,  the  monarchy  flourished  for  several  hundred 
years  until  it  was  overthrown  by  an  invasion  of  the  Hyksos,  a 
race  of  wandering  shepherds,  whose  origin  is  uncertain,  though 
many  learned  men  suppose  them  to  have  been  Scythians. 
'J'he  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings,  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
held  possession  of  the  greater  part  of  Egypt  for  a  period  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  two  to  nine  centuries,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  which  they  were  expelled  by  force  of  arms,  and  a  na- 
tive monarch  again  placed  on  the  throne. 

14.  The  most  distinguished  of  the  Egyptian  kings  was  Ram- 
eses  the  Great,  who  by  the  Greeks  was  called  Sesostris.  He 
was  a  mighty  conqueror,  and  subdued  nearly  the  whole  of 
Western  Asia,  with  some  of  the  adjacent  countries  of  Europe. 
On  returning  from  his  foreign  expeditions,  he  employed  him- 
self in  enlarging  and  beautifying  the  chief  cities  of  his  king- 
dom. Some  of  the  magnificent  temples  and  palaces  which  he 
erected  are  yet  standing,  and  on  their  walls  are  sculptured 
representations  of  his  principal  achievements. 

15.  Other  celebrated  kings  were  Osirtesen  I.,  who  is  sup- 
posed by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  Pharaoh  that  received 
Joseph  ;  Thothmes  IV.,  in  whose  reign  the  Hyksos  were  finally 
expelled  ;  and  Amenoph  111.,  who  conquered  Nubia  and  erected 
the  famous  vocal  statue  of  Memnon. 

16.  The  next  sovereign  who  is  particularly  distinguished  in 
history  was  Nedms,  or  Pharaoh- Necho.  He  patronized  navi- 
gation, and  fitted  out  a  fleet  which  sailed  round  Africa.  He 
made  war  upon  the  Modes  and  Babylonians,  and  defeated 
Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  in  the  battle  of  Megiddo. 

17.  In  the  year  B.  C.  525,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
reign  of  Psammeni'tus,  the  Persiavs,  under  Camhy'ses,  in- 
vaded Egypt,  and  laid  siege  to  Pelu'sium.  Taking  advan- 
tage of  the  Egy])tian  superstition,  the  invaders  placed  in  front 
of  their  army  a  variety  of  dogs,  cats,  and  other  animals,  whicli 
were  held  sacred  by  the  besieged ;  and  the  Egyptians  not 
daring  to  injure  the  sacred  animals,  the  Persians  entered  Pe- 
iusium  without  resistance.  Soon  after,  Camby'ses  took  Mem- 
phis, and  reduced  Egypt  to  a  province  of  the  Persian  mon- 
archy. 

18.  It  was  easily  wrested  from  the  sway  of  Persia  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great ;  after  his  death,  it  fell  to  the  share  of  Ptol'e 
my  ;   and  under  him  and  his  successors  of  the  same  nama 


10  Tin:   PIKEN'ICIAN.S. 

Egypt  regained  her  ancient  lustre,  and  rose  to  u  heiglit  in 
Bcience  and  commerce  which  no  other  part  of  the  world  then 
equalled. 


THE   PIKENICIANS. 

1.  The  Phcenicians  were  among  tlie  most  remarkable  and 
most  early  civilized  nations  of  antiquity  ;  yet  there  is  no  com- 
plete or  regular  history  of  them  extant :  occasional  notices  of 
them,  however,  are  found  in  the  Scriptures,  and  in  the  Greek 
historians.  Sanconi'athon^  a  Phaeniclan  historian,  is  supposed 
by  some  to  have  flourished  about  the  time  of  .Joshua ;  but  of 
his  work  only  a  few  fragments  remain ;  and  the  genuineness 
of  even  these  is  considered  as  very  doubtful. 

2.  The  inhabitants  of  Phoenicia,  who  are  styled  Ca'naanites 
m  the  Scriptures,  were  a  commercial  people  in  the  time  of 
Abraham.  Tyre  and  Sidon,  their  princial  cities,  were  two  of 
the  most  ancient  we  read  of  in  history;  and,  in  remote  ages, 
they  were  the  most  considerable  seats  of  commerce  in  the 
world. 

3.  The  Phosnicians  were  the  reputed  inventors  of  glass, 
purple,  and  coinage ;  the  invention  of  letters  has  also  been  at- 
tributed to  them,  as  well  as  to  the  Egyptians ;  and  to  Cadmus 
is  ascribed  the  honor  of  having  first  carried  letters  into  Greece. 

4.  The  Phoenicians  sent  out  a  number  of  colonics  to  Cyprus, 
Rhodes,  Greece,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Spain ;  and  the  founda- 
tion of  Carthage  is  attributed  to  Dido,  sister  of  Pi/gma'Uon, 
king  of  Tyre,  with  a  company  of  adventurers.  Tyre  suffered 
two  Memorable  sieges  and  captures;  the  first  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  the  second  by  Alexander  the  Great. 


ASSYRIA   AND   BABYLON  H 


ASSYRIA   AND   BABYLON. 

1.  Assyria,  the  first  of  the  four  great  empires  of  antiquity, 
derived  its  name  iVom  As/iur,  the  son  of  Sliem,  and  the  re- 
|)utcd  founder  of  Nineveh,  its  cliief  city.  The  foundation  of 
Bubijlon  is  ascribed  to  Nimrod,  wlio  was  the  grandson  of  Ha7n^ 
and  considered  by  many  tlic  same  as  the  Beliis  of  profane 
historians.  Tliese  two  cities  are  supposed  to  have  been  found- 
ed near  tlie  same  time,  and  not  long  after  the  dispersion  of 
Babel.  But  of  their  history,  for  many  ages  after  their  found- 
ation, veiy  little  is  known  with  certainty,  and  the  accounts 
given  of  them  by  ancient  authors  are  inconsistent  with  each 
other. 

2.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  Assyria  and  Babylon  wore 
originally  distinct  kingdoms,  and  so  continued  till  Ninus  con- 
quered Babylon,  and  annexed  it  to  the  Assyrian  empire.  Ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Gillies,  however,  only  one  monarchy  existed  at 
the  same  time,  but  divided  into  three  great  eras ;  the  first  com- 
mencing with  Ninirod,  when  Babylon  was  the  seat  of  empire ; 
the  second  with  A^w?/..?,  whose  capital  was  Nineveh;  and  the 
third  bcgirmiug  after  the  death  of  Sardanapa'lus,  when  Bab' 
ylon  again  became  the  metropolis. 

3.  Ninus  and  Semir'amis  are  the  hero  and  heroine  of  the 
old  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  chronicles  ;  but  tlib  account  given 
of  them  appears  to  partake  more  of  fable  than  of  credible  his- 
tory. So  great  is  the  uncertainty  respecting  them,  that  differ- 
ent historians  and  chronologists  differ  no  less  than  a  thousand 
years  with  regard  to  the  time  when  they  flourished. 

4.  Ninus  is  represented  as  a  great  and  powerful  sovereign, 
and  is  said  to  have  enlarged  and  embellished  the  city  of  Nin- 
eveh. After  having  made  extensive  conquests,  he  espoused 
Semir'amis,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  throne.  She  is  de- 
scribed not  only  as  surpassing  all  her  sex  in  wit  and  beauty, 
but  also  as  possessing  unbounded  ambition,  and  extraordinary 
talents  for  government  and  war.  She  enlarged  Babylon,  and 
rendered  it  the  most  magnificent  city  in  the  world  ;  and,  after 
a  reign  of  great  splendor,  was  succeeded  by  her  son  Niiiyas. 

5.  Fi'om  the  time  of  Ninyas  to  the  overthrow  of  the  mon- 
archy, under  Sardanapa'lus,  a  period  of  several  centuries, 
little  or  nothing  is  known  respecting  the  history  of  Assyria  and 
Babylon. 

6.  The  name  of  Sardanapa'lus  is  almost  a  proverbial  re- 
proach. He  ^s  said  to  have  so  degraded  himself  as  to  adopt 
the  dress  and  occupations  of  a  female,  and  to  have  passed  his 


12  ASSYRIA   AKD   BABYLOr*. 

life  in  the  most  disgraceful  cfluminacy  and  voluptuousness,  in 
the  company  of  his  wives  and  concubines.  At  length  Arha- 
ces,  governor  of  Media,  and  Bel'esis,  a  priest  of  Babylon,  dis- 
gusted with  his  inglorious  and  shameful  life,  excited  a  rebellion 
against  him.  After  sustaining  a  defeat,  Sardanapa'lus,  in  order 
to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors,  set  fire  to 
his  palace,  and  burnt  himself,  together  with  his  women  and  all 
his  treasures. 

7.  The  empire  was  then  divided  into  three  kingdoms,  among 
the  three  conspirators,  Arbaces  becoming  king  of  Media,  Bel'e- 
sis of  Babylon,  and  Pul  or  Phul  of  Assyria. 

8.  The  successors  of  Ful  were,  1st,  Tig'lath-pi-le'ser,  who 
took  possession  of  that  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  which 
was  cast  of  the  Jordan  ;  2d,  Shalammie'ser,  who  put  an  end  to 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  carried  the  inhabitants  captive  ; 
3d,  Se7inach'erib,  who  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  in  the  time  of 
Hezeki'ah,  but  was  compelled  to  return  in  disgrace,  185,000 
men  of  his  army  being  destroyed  in  a  miraculous  manner  in 
one  night ;  4th,  Esarhad'don,  who  defeated  Manas'seh,  king 
of  Judah,  and  carried  him  captive  to  Babylon. 

9.  Not  long  after  the  death  of  Esarhad'don,  Ndbopolas'sar^ 
or  Nehuchadnez'zar,  having  got  possession  of  Babylon,  being 
assisted  by  Cyax'ares,  king  of  Media,  besieged  and  destroyed 
Nineveh,  put  an  end  to  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  and  made 
Babylon  the  seat  of  empire. 

10.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Nebuchadnezzar  II.,  who 
took  Jerusalem,  and  carried  the  Jews  captive  to  Babylon.  He 
had  a  long  and  signal  reign,  some  particulars  of  which  are  re- 
corded in  the  book  of  Daniel. 

11.  During  the  reign  of  Bclsliazzai\  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  a  few  years  after  the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  the 
Persians,  under  Cyrus,  after  a  siege  of  two  years,  having 
turned  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  entered  the  city  through 
the  dried  channel,  and  took  it  while  the  inhabitants  were  en- 
gaged in  feasting  and  riot.  Belshazzar  was  slain,  and  with 
him  ended  the  empire  of  Babylon. 

12.  Alter  its  conquest  by  the  Persians,  Babylon  gradually 
declined,  until  in  a  few  centuries  no  vestige  of  its  grandeur  re- 
mained, and  even  tradition  was  unable  to  point  with  certainty 
lo  the  place  where  it  had  stood.  Modern  European  travellers 
have,  however,  at  length  clearly  identified  its  site,  which,  in 
accordance  with  the  prophecies  of  Scripture,  has  been  for  ages 
a  howling  wilderness,  covered  with  shapeless  ruins,  and  in- 
habited only  by  wild  beasts  and  venomous  reptiles. 

13.  Nineveh,  which,  as  before  related,  was  burnt  by  the 
Medes,  never  revived  from  its  ashes.     In  course  of  time,  ita 


I'EKSIA.  13 

ruins  were  entirely  covered  with  earth,  so  that  a  few  huge 
mounds,  clothed  with  vegetation,  alone  marked  its  site.  In 
1845,  these  mounds  were  explored  by  Layard,  an  English 
traveller,  who  discovered  extensive  remains  of  palaces  and 
other  edifices,  which  had  been  buried  nearly  2500  years. 
He  found  also  sculptures  and  inscriptions  of  great  interest, 
which  throw  much  light  on  the  manners  and  customs  of  its 
inhabitants,  and  on  some  points  of  its  history. 


PERSIA 


1.  Persia  was  the  second  of  the  four  great  empires  of  antiq- 
uity. Its  history,  prior  to  the  reign  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  is  in- 
volved in  obscurity  and  fable.  It  was  originally  called  Elam, 
and  the  inhabitants  Elamitcs,  who  were  descendants  of  Shem. 
In  the  earlier  ages  it  was  of  small  extent ;  but  under  the  reign 
of  Cyrus,  who  was  the  founder  of  the  great  Persian  empire,  it 
became  the  most  powerful  and  extensive  sovereignty  on  the 
globe,  comprising  Persia,  Media,  Parthia,  Assyria  or  Babylonia, 
Syria,  and  Asia  Minor ;  and  to  these  Egypt  was  added  by 
Camby'ses. 

2.  For  the  history  of  Persia,  from  the  reign  of  Cyrus  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  empire  by  Alexander  the  Great,  we  are  in- 
debted chiefly  to  the  Greeks.  In  the  account  of  the  same  pe- 
riod by  the  writers  of  modern  Persia,  there  is  much  of  fable, 
and  a  total  neglect  of  dates,  and  the  names  of  the  sovereigns 
are  different  from  those  given  by  the  Greek  historians.  The 
narratives  of  these  two  classes  of  writers  differ  in  many  mate- 
rial points.  The  Greek  authors,  though  they  throw  a  veil  of 
doubt  over  their  records  by  their  exaggerations,  especially 
where  the  honor  of  then'  own  country  is  concerned,  are,  never- 
theless, esteemed  as  entitled  to  superior  credit. 

3.  Cyrus  is  desci'ibed  as  possessed  of  great  talents,  botli  as 
a  warrior  and  a  sovereign.  Having  subdued  all  the  nations 
from  the  ^EgEc'an  sea  to  the  Euphra'les,  he,  together  with  his 
uncle,  Cyax'ares  II.,  king  of  the  Medes,  took  Babylon,  and  con- 
quered the  Assyrian  empire.  Cyax'ares  dying  soon  after, 
C'yrus  reigned  sole  monarch  over  the  united  kingdoms,  during 
seven  years  ;  in  the  first  of  which  he  published  the  famous  edict 
for  the  return  of  the  Jews  and  the  rebuilding  o'l  Jerusalem. 

4.  Ilerod'otus,  Xen'ophon,  and  Ctc'sias,  in  their  accounts  of 
the  character  and  history  of  Cyrus,  difier  in  many  particulars. 

2 


14  PERSIA. 

That  of  Xcn'ophon  has  been  followed  by  RoUin  ant^  other  moH- 
erns ;  yet  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  design  of  Xcn'ophon 
not  to  exhibit  a  i'aitliful  record  of  I'acts,  but  to  delineate  the 
model  of  a  perfect  prince  and  a  well-regulated  monarchy. 

5.  Cyrus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ccnnhi/'ses,  a  cruel 
tyrant,  whose  principal  exploit  was  the  conquest  of  Egypt. 
On  his  death,  Smey-dis  usurped  the  crown  ;  but  after  a  reign  of 
seven  months,  he  w^as  assassinated,  and  Dari'us  was  elected 
sovereign.  It  was  the  army  of  the  latter  that  invaded  Greece, 
and  was  defeated  at  Mar'athon.  The  history  of  Persia,  from 
this  time  till  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy,  is  much  connected 
with  that  of  Greece. 

60  Darius  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Xerxes  I.,  who  made 
the  second  great  invasion  of  Greece,  and  suffered  a  series  of 
defeats,  with  immense  losses.  lie  left  the  empire  to  his  son, 
Artaxerx'es  I.,  who  had  a  long  and  peaceful  reign. 

7.  The  other  two  principal  sovereigns  were  Artaxerx'es  II.., 
during  whose  reign  Xeii'ophon  made  the  famous  retreat  with 
10,000  Greeks,  and  Dari'us  Codom'anus.,  the  last  sovereign  of 
ancient  Persia.  The  latter  was  defeated  by  Alexander,  and 
with  his  death  the  ancient  Persian  empire  terminated. 


Kings   of  Ancient   Peesia. 

[The  figures  denote  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  each.] 


B.C. 

Ti'.iG.  Cyrus  tlie  Great. 

529.  Cambyses. 

fiifci.  Snierdis. 

521.  Darius  Hystaspis. 

485.  Xer.'ses. 

464.  Artabanus. 

464.  Artaxerxes  T.  Longiman'io 


42.5.  Xerxes  II. 

424.  Sogdianus. 

423.  Darius  Nothus. 

404.  Artaxerxes  Mnemon. 

358.  Artaxerxes  III.  Ochus 

337.  Arses. 

336.  Darius  Codomanus 


GREECE.  IS 


GREECE. 

SUCTION   I. 

Greece  —  the  Cuwitry  and  the  People. 

1.  Greece,  llie  most  celebrated  country  of  antiquity,  was  of 
very  inconsiderable  extent,  scarcely  exceeding  in  size  tiio  liaif 
of  the  state  of  New  York.  It  was  bounded  on  all  sides  by  the 
Bea,  except  on  the  north,  where  it  bordered  upon  Macedo'nia 
and  Epi'rus.*  Its  general  aspect  is  rugged,  but  its  climate  is 
liiglily  propitious ;  and  no  other  country  of  antiquity  was  so 
favorably  situated  for  holding  commerce  with  other  ancient 
nations. 

2.  This  country  occupies  but  a  speck  on  the  map  of  the 
world,  yet  it  fills  a  space  in  the  eye  of  taste  and  philosophy 
incomparably  greater  than  the  mightiest  empires  that  have 
overshadowed  the  earth.  The  inhabitants  were  renowned 
above  all  other  ancient  nations  for  genius,  learning,  and  at- 
tainments in  the  arts ;  and  they  have  been  the  teachers  of  all 
succeeding  ages.  Whatever,  therefore,  relates  to  Greece,  is 
rendered  peculiarly  interesting  by  numerous  associations. 

3.  Greece  comprised  numerous  small,  independent  states, 
which  were  more  commonly  designated  by  the  name  of  their 
chief  city,  than  by  that  of  the  country  or  province.  These 
states  differed  from  each  other  in  their  forms  of  government, 
and  the  character  and  manners  of  the  people.  But,  for  their 
mutual  defence,  they  were  united  in  a  confederacy  by  the 
council  of  the  Ajnphic'tj/ons,  as  well  as  by  a  common  language 
and  religion,  and  by  various  public  games,  to  which,  in  lime  of 
peace,  they  all  resorted. 

4.  The  only  form  of  government  in  Greece,  in  the  early 
ages,  appears  to  have  been  limited  monarchy  ;  but,  in  process 
of  time,  monarchy  was  abolished,  and  republican  forms  were 
everywhere  prevalent. 

5.  The  history  of  these  little  republics  is  calculated  to  awaken 


*  Greece,  in  its  most  extensive  sense,  included  Macedonia  and  Epi'rus, 
countries  anciently  inliabited  by  a  people  of  similar  origin,  language,  and 
religion,  but  not  recognized  by  the  Greeks  as  a  part  of  their  body,  princi- 
pally on  account  of  their  less  advanced  civilization,  and  because  tiiey  re- 
tained the  rude  monarchy  of  early  ages,  while  Greece  was  divided  into 
small  republics.  The  Greeks  also  established  colonies  in  Thrace,  Asia 
Minor,  Italy,  Sicily,  &c. ;  so  that  they  were  widely  spread  over  territories 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  cotnitry  which  ia  properly  styled  Greece. 


16  (UIKKCG. 

perpetual  and  powerful  interest.  Tliey  underwent  many  revo- 
lutions, and  were  frequently  engaged  in  war  with  each  other, 
as  well  as  with  foreign  nations ;  so  that  their  history  presents 
scenes  continually  new  and  shifting,  and  abounding  in  those 
strange  and  sudden  reverses  which  agitate  and  interest  the 
mind  of  man. 

6.  Greece  was  called  by  the  natives  Hellas^  and  the  inhab- 
itants Hel-Je'nes ;  but,  by  the  poets,  they  were  often  called 
Dcin'ai,  Pelas'gi,  Argi'vi,  Achi'ri,  Achce'i,  &c.  The  original 
inhabitants,  generally  considered  as  the  descendants  of  Javaii, 
the  son  of  Japhet,  were  extremely  barbarous,  living  in  caves 
and  huts,  feeding  upon  acorns  and  berries,  and  clothing  them- 
selves with  the  skins  of  wild  beasts. 

7.  In  this  state  of  hopeless  barbarism  was  Greece,  when  it 
was  visited  by  a  colony  of  Egyptians  under  Cecrops,  and 
also  by  one  of  Phcznicians  under  Cadmus,  who  are  reputed  to 
have  brought  to  the  country  the  first  rudiments  of  civilization. 


SECTION  II. 

The  History  of  Greece  divided  into  Periods. 

1.  The  history  of  Greece  may  be  distinguished  into  two 
general  divisions  :  —  1st,  the  period  of  uncertain  history,  ex- 
tending from  the  earliest  accounts  of  the  country  to  the  first 
war  with  Persia,  in  the  year  B.  C.  490;  2d,  the  period  of  au- 
thentic history,  extending  from  the  Persian  invasion  to  the  final 
subjugation  of  Greece  by  the  Romans,  B.  C.  146. 

2.  The  first  period,  according  to  the  most  generally  received 
chronology,  reckoning  from  the  foundation  of  Sic'yon,  the 
most  ancient  kingdom  of  Greece,  comprises  the  space  of  about 
1600  years.  This  long  succession  of  ages  is  involved  in  ob- 
scurity and  fable.  There  are  no  records  relating  to  it  that 
really  deserve  the  name  of  history ;  and  the  accounts  which 
have  been  given  of  its  events  were  drawn  up  by  writers  who 
lived  long  after  the  transactions  of  which  they  treat,  and  who 
possessed  few  materials  for  authentic  history. 

3.  This  period  may  be  distinguished  into  four  subdivisions, 
which  are  marked  by  some  peculiar  historical  features :  the 
1st,  reaching  from  the  earliest  accounts  of  Greece  to  the  Tro- 
jan war,  B.  C.  1184,  a  period  which  may  be  termed,  by  way 
of  eminence,  the  fabulous  age;  the  2d,  extending  from  the  ex- 
pedition against  Troy  to  the  death  of  Homer,  a  period  gener- 
ally called  the  heroic  age^  of  which  the  only  history  is  con- 


(ained  in  tlio  poems  of  tlio  Il'iad  and  Od'ysscy ,  the  3d,  com- 
prising the  space  of  time  from  the  deatli  of  Homer  to  the  death 
of  Lvcur^us,  a  period  which  lias  been  denominated  the  era  of 
7-erohit.ions,  of  which  scarcely  any  species  of  history  exists; 
the  4th,  reachinfi  from  the  death  of  Lycurgus  to  the  first  inva- 
sion of  Greece  by  the  Persians,  a  period  which  has  been  styled 
Ihe  era  of  iradilionanj  hislory,  possessing  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  credibility. 

4.  The  second  general  division,  Ihe  period  of  authentic  his- 
tori/,  extends  from  the  first  invasion  of  Greece  by  the  Persians 
to  its  final  subjugation  by  the  llomans,  a  period  of  344  years. 
The  history  of  this  portion  is  luminous,  and  connected  beyond 
that  of  any  other  portion  of  pagan  antiquity,  having  been  re- 
corded by  writers  of  the  greatest  ability,  who  were  contempo- 
rary with  the  events  which  they  relate,  and  many  of  whom 
bore  a  distinguished  part  in  them. 

5.  This  period  also  may  be  divided  into  four  parts,  distin- 
guished rather  by  political  than  liistorical  characteristics :  the 
ist,  reaching  from  the  Persian  invasion,  B.  C.  490,  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  a  period  of  59  years,  the 
era  of  &recian  unanimity  and  triumphs ;  the  2d,  extcncfing 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  to  the  accession 
of  Philip  of  Macedon,  B.  C.  3G0,  a  period  of  71  years,  the  era 
of  civil  icars  and  intestine  commotions  among  the  states  of 
(ircece ;  the  3d,  reaching  from  the  accession  of  Philip  to  the 
(loath  of  Alexander  the  Great,  B.  C.  324,  a  period  of  36  years, 
distinguished  by  the  entire  ascendency  of  Greece,  or  rather  of 
Map'edon,  over  Persia ;  the  4th,  extending  from  the  death  of 
Alexander  to  the  final  subjugation  of  Greece  by  the  Romans, 
B.  C.  146,  a  period  of  178  years,  the  era  of  degeneracy,  turbu- 
lence, and  ineffectual  struggles  for  independence.  During  the 
greater  part  of  this  period,  the  destinies  of  Greece  were  di- 
rected by  foreign  influence,  and  were  placed  successively 
under  the  protection  of  Macedonia,  Egypt,  and  Rome. 


SECTION   III. 

Fabulous  Age:  Foundation  of  Cities  and  Institutions  : 
Argonautic  Expedition. 

1.  The  fabulous  age  comprises  the  period  of  the  foundation 

of  the  principal  cities,  the  commencement  of  civilization,  the 

introduction  of  letters  and  the  arts,  and  the  establishment  of 

the  most  celebrated  institutions  of  the  countrv. 
«)  * 


18  GREECE. 

2.  Sic'y-on,  the  most  ancient  city,  is  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  Mgi'alns;  Argos,  by  In'ackus,  the  last  of  the  Titans; 
Aih'ens,  by  Ce'crops,  an  eminent  legislator,  with  a  colony  from 
Egypt ;  Thebes,  by  Cadmus,  a  Phosnician,  who  is  said  to  have 
first  introduced  letters  into  Greece  ;  Cor'inlh,  by  Sis'yphus ; 
Myce'ncc,  by  Per'seiis ;  and  Lacedce'nion,  by  Lelex. 

3.  Some  of  the  memorable  events  of  this  period  were  the 
deluges  of  Og'ij-ges  and  Deuca'lion ;  the  institution  of  the 
OJym'pic,  Isth'mian,  Pyth'ian,  and  Neme'an  games;  of  the 
laws  of  Minos  in  Crete,  the  court  of  Areop'agus,  the  Elcusin'- 
ian  mysteries,  the  Oracle  of  Delphi,  and  the  council  of  the 
Amphic'tyons.  This  period  also  embraces  the  marvellous  ex- 
ploits of  Her'cules,  The'scus,  and  other  fabulous  heroes. 

4.  The  first  great  enterprise  recorded  of  the  Greeks  was  the 
Argonautic  expedition,  the  account  of  which  appears  to  partake 
much  more  of  fable  than  of  history.  It  was  commanded  by 
Jason,  the  son  of  the  king  of  loVchos,  accompanied  by  about 
fifty  of  the  most  illustrious  young  men  of  Greece  :  among  these 
heroes  were  Her'cules,  The'scus,  Castor  and  Pollux,  Or'pheus^ 
the  physician  jEscula'pius,  and  the  astronomer  Chi'ron. 

5.  They  sailed  from  lol'chos,  in  Thessaly,  to  Col'chis,  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  Euxine  sea ;  and  they  were  called 
Ar'gonauts  from  their  sailing  in  the  ship  Argo,  which  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  sea-vessel  ever  built.  This  famous  voy- 
age, which  was  probably  a  piratical  expedition,  is  commonly 
represented  to  have  been  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  recov- 
ering the  golden  fleece  of  a  ram,  which  originally  belonged  to 
their  country.  The  fleece  is  pretended  to  liave  been  guarded 
by  bulls  that  breathed  fire,  and  by  a  dragon  that  never  slept. 


SECTION  IV. 

The  Heroic  Age :   Trojaii  War :  Return  of  the  Heraclida. 

1.  The  heroic  age  has  been  compared  to  the  age  of  chiv- 
alry ;  and  there  has  been  supposed  to  exist  a  striking  resem- 
blance between  the  manners  and  sentiments  of  the  Greeks  of 
ihat  period  and  those  of  the  Gothic  nations  of  Europe  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  except  that  the  latter  displayed  more  generosity 
in  war,  and  more  gentleness  to  the  female  sex,  than  the  former. 

2.  The  history  of  the  Trojan  war  rests  on  the  authority  of 
Homer,  and  forms  the  subject  of  his  Iliad,  the  noblest  poem 


GRKKCE  19 

of  antiquity,  which   presents  a  lively  picture  of  the  Grecian 
character  and  manners  at  this  early  jjcriod. 

3.  JJcIrn,  the  daughter  of  Tyn'darus,  king  of  Sparta,  was 
reputed  the  most  heautiful  woman  of  her  ago,  and  her  hand 
was  solicited  by  the  most  illustrious  princes  of  Greece.  Her 
father  bound  ail  her  suitors  Ijy  a  solemn  oath,  that  they  should 
abide  by  the  choice  that  Helen  should  make  of  one  among 
them  ;  and,  should  she  he  stolen  from  the  arms  of  her  hus- 
band, that  they  would  all  assist,  with  their  utmost  strength,  to 
recover  her.  McncJa'tis  was  the  favored  individual,  and,  after 
his  nuptials  with  Helen  were  celebrated,  Tyn'darus  resigned 
the  crown  to  his  son-in-law. 

4.  Paris,  the  son  of  Priam.,  king  of  Troy,  a  powerful  city 
founded  by  Dar'danus,  having  adjudged  the  prize  for  superior 
beauty  to  Venus,  in  preference  to  Juno  and  Minerva,  was 
promised  by  her  the  most  beautiful  woman  of  the  age  for  liis 
wife.  Soon  afterward  he  visited  Sparta,  and  was  received 
with  every  mark  of  respect  by  king  Menela'us ;  but  he  abused 
the  hospitality  which  was  shown  him  by  persuading  Helen  to 
elope  with  him  to  Troy,  and,  together  with  her,  carried  off  a 
considerable  treasure. 

5.  This  act  of  treachery  and  ingratitude  produced  the  Tro- 
jan war :  a  confederacy  was  immediately  formed  by  the  prin- 
ces of  Greece,  agreeably  to  their  engagement,  to  avenge  the 
outrage.  A  fleet  of  about  1,200  open  vessels  conveyed  ar 
army  of  100,000  men  to  the  Trojan  coast.  Agamem'non 
king  of  Argos,  brother  of  Menela'us,  was  chosen  commander- 
in-chief.  Some  of  the  other  most  celebrated  princes,  who  dis- 
tinguished themselves  in  this  war,  wore  Achil'les,  the  braves; 
of  the  Greeks,  Ajax,  Menela'us,  Ulys'ses,  Nestor,  and  Dio- 
ine'des. 

6.  The  Trojans  were  commanded  by  Hector,  the  son  of 
Priam,  assisted  by  Paris,  Deiph'obus,  JEne'as,  and  Sarpe'don. 
After  a  siege  of  ten  years,  the  city  was  taken  by  stratagem, 
plundered,  and  burnt  to  the  ground.  The  venerable  king  Pri- 
am was  slain ;  and  his  family  was  led  into  captivity. 

7.  About  eighty  years  after  the  destruction  of  Troy  began 
ihe  civil  war  of  the  Heracli'dce,  usually  called  the  return  of 
'.he  HeracU'da:  into  Peloponne'sus. 

8.  Hercules,  sovereign  of  iVryce'na',  a  city  of  Peloponne'- 
sus, was  banished  from  his  country,  with  all  his  family,  while 
the  crown  was  seized  by  At'reus,  the  son  of  Pelops.  After 
the  period  of  a  century,  the  Heracli'dre,  or  descendants  of 
Her'cules,  returned  to  Peloponne'sus,  and,  having  subdued 
ftU  their  enemies,  took  possession  of  the  country.     A  part  of 


20  GREECE. 

the  inhabitants  were  reduced  to  slavery ;  tlie  rest,  being  ex- 
pelled, retired  to  Asia  Minor,  and  possessed  tliemselves  of  a 
country  afterwards  called  Jonia. 

9.  This  revolution  in  Peloponne'sus  not  only  changed  the 
inhabitants  and  government  of  the  country,  and  established 
new  divisions  of  the  Greeks,  but  checked  the  progress  of  the 
arts  and  civilization. 


SECTION   V. 

Sparta  or  Laced cemon :  Institutions  of  Lycurgus. 

1.  The  two  leading  states  of  Greece  were  Athens  and  Spar- 
ta^ the  latter  distinguished  for  military  valor  and  discipline, 
the  former  for  literature  and  the  arts.  Their  different  char- 
acters and  habits  were  formed,  in  a  great  degree,  by  the  in- 
stitutions of  their  respective  legislators,  Lycurgus  of  Sparta, 
and  Solon  of  Athens. 

2.  Sparta,  or  Lacedag'mon,  was  the  capital  of  Laconia,  in 
the  southern  part  of  Peloponne'sus.  After  the  return  of  the 
Heracli'daj,  its  government  was  administered  by  the  two  sons 
of  Aristode'mus,  who  reigned  jointly,  and  this  double  monar- 
chy was  transmitted  to  the  descendants  of  each  for  many  ages. 

3.  Lycurgus,  the  celebrated  Spartan  legislator,  was  the  broth- 
er of  one  of  the  kings ;  and,  on  the  death  of  the  sovereign,  he 
became  protector.  The  government  of  Sparta  being  now  in 
the  greatest  disorder,  Lycurgus,  in  whom,  on  account  of  his 
gr§at  abilities  and  integrity,  the  highest  confidence  was  re- 
posed, was  intrusted  with  the  duty  of  reforming  the  constitu- 
tion. 

4.  He  wrought  an  entire  change  in  the  form  of  government, 
and  in  the  manners  of  the  people.  He  instituted  a  senate  of 
28  members,  elected  from  the  nobles.  The  two  kings  were 
continued,  but  were  nothing  more  than  hereditary  and  presid- 
ing members  of  the  senate,  generals  of  the  army,  and  high 
priests  of  the  nation.  He  divided  the  territory  of  the  republic 
into  39,000  shares  among  all  the  free  citizens. 

5.  Commerce  was  abolished,  the  distinction  of  dress  an- 
nihilated, the  use  of  gold  and  silver  prohibited,  and  iron 
money  substituted  in  their  place.  All  the  citizens,  not  ex- 
cepting even  the  kings,  were  required  to  eat  at  the  public  ta- 
bles, where  all  luxury  and  excess  were  to  be  avoided,  black 
broth  being  the  principal  article  of  food. 

6.  Every  citizen  was  to  be  wholly  devoted  to  the  service  of 


CREFCE.  21 

flie  state,  wliether  in  peace  or  war.  Infants,  as  soon  as  born, 
wore  carefully  inspected,  and  those  that  were  well  formed 
were  delivered  to  public  nurses ;  and  at  the  age  of  seven 
years,  they  were  introduced  into  the  public  schools,  where 
they  were  all  educated  on  the  same  plan.  •  Those  that  were 
deformed  or  sickly,  were  exposed  to  perish. 

7.  Letters  were  taught  for  use,  but  not  for  ornament ;  and 
the  Spartans,  while  they  were  distinguished  as  a  shicwd  and 
sagacious  people,  were  never  eminent  for  learning  ,  and  no 
book  has  been  transmitted  to  modern  times  written  by  a  gen- 
uine Spartan.  Dif^usencss  of  language  and  conversation  was 
discountenanced,  and  the  Lacedemonians  were  noted  for  theii 
concise  or  laconic  speech. 

8.  The  young  were  taught  especially  to  respect  the  aged, 
and  to  cherish  an  ardent  love  of  their  country ;  they  wera 
formed  to  a  high  principle  of  honor,  and  to  great  sensibility 
to  applause  and  to  shame.  They  were  early  inured  to  hard- 
ship, were  accustomed  to  sleep  on  rushes,  and  were  supplied 
with  only  plain  and  scanty  food ;  but  they  were  encouraged  to 
steal  whatever  they  could,  provided  they  accomplished  the  theft 
without  being  detected. 

9.  The  institutions  of  Lycurgus  were  well  adapted  to  im- 
press on  the  people  a  character  completely  artificial,  by  stim- 
ulating some  feelings  and  principles  to  excess,  and  almost 
eradicating  others  ;  but  they  were  not  calculated  to  promote 
either  happiness  or  goodness.  The  system  was,  however,  in- 
geniously contrived  to  render  the  Spartans  a  nation  of  soldiers  ; 
by  them  war  was  considered  the  great  business  of  life,  and  it 
was  their  highest  ambition  to  be  terrible  to  their  enemies. 
The  heroic  virtues  or  qualities,  such  as  patriotism,  public  spir- 
it, courage,  fortitude,  and  contempt  of  danger,  suffering,  and 
death,  were  cherished  ;  while  all  the  softer  virtues  and  domes- 
tic affections  were  sacrificed. 

10.  Young  women,  as  well  as  young  men,  were  trained  to 
athletic  exercises.  The  manners  of  the  Lacedaemonian  women 
wore  loose  and  indelicate.  They  were  destitute  of  the  virtues 
which  most  adorn  the  female  character,  modesty,  tenderness, 
and  sensibility.  Their  education  was  calculated  to  give  them 
a  masculine  energy;  to  render  them  bold,  hardy,  and  coura- 
geous;  and  to  fill  them  with  admiration  of  militaiy  glory. 
Mothers  exulted  when  their  sons  fell  honorably  in  battle. 
"  Return  with  your  shield,  or  on  your  shield,"  said  a  Spartan 
mother  to  her  son,  when  he  was  going  to  meet  the  enemy ;  that 
is,  "  conquer  or  die." 

n.  The  government  of  Lacedte'mon  acquired  solidity,  while 
the  other  states  were  torn  by  internal  dissensions.     For  the 


J82  GREECE. 

long  period  of  500  years,  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  con- 
tinued in  force;  the  power  and  influence  of  Sparta  were  felt 
throughout  Greece  ;  and  for  a  considerable  part  of  that  period. 
her  glory  eclipsed  that  of  the  other  states. 

12.  But  in  process  of  time,  the  severe  manners  of  her  war- 
riors were  relaxed ;  and  during  the  administration  of  some  of 
her  later  kings,  changes  were  introduced  into  the  laws  and 
institutions,  particularly  in  the  time  of  Lysan'der^  whose  con- 
quests filled  his  country  with  wealth,  and  opened  the  sources 
of  luxury  and  avarice. 


SECTION  VI. 

Athens :  Codrus :  Draco  :  Sohn  and  his  Institutions :  Fisis- 
tratus :  Fisistratidm. 

1.  Athens,  the  capital  of  At'tica,  was  the  most  celebrated 
city  of  Greece.  It  was  distinguished  for  its  commerce,  wealth, 
and  magnificence ;  it  was  the  chief  seat  of  learning  and  the 
arts ;  and  it  was  the  birthplace  of  many  illustrious  men. 

2.  The  last  king  of  Athens  was  Codrus,  who,  in  the  war 
with  the  Heracli'dai,  sacrificed  himself  for  the  good  of  hia 
country.  After  his  death,  the  regal  government  was  abolished, 
and  the  state  was  governed  by  magistrates,  styled  archons. 
The  office  was  at  first  for  life  ;  afterward  it  w'as  reduced  to 
a  period  of  ten  years ;  at  last  it  became  annual,  and  was  di- 
vided among  nine  persons. 

3.  The  first  code  of  written  laws  which  the  Athenians  pos- 
■feessed  was  prepared  by  Draco,  a  man  of  stern  and  rigid  tem- 
per. These  laws  punished  all  crimes  with  death  ;  and,  on 
account  of  their  sanguinary  character,  are  said  to  have  been 
written  in  blood.  Draco  being  asked  why  he  was  so  severe 
in  his  punishments,  replied,  that  "  the  smallest  crimes  de- 
served death,  and  he  had  no  higher  punishment  for  the  great- 
est." But  the  great  severity  of  these  laws  prevented  tlieir 
being  fully  executed. 

4.  The  celebrated  Solon,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of 
Greece,  being  raised  to  the  archonship,  was  intrusted  with  the 
care  of  framing  for  his  country  a  new  constitution,  and  a  new 
system  of  laws.  His  disposition  was  mild  and  temporizing ; 
and  he  did  not,  like  Lycurgus,  endeavor  to  operate  a  total 
change  in  the  manners  of  his  countrymen,  but  attempted  to 
moderate  their  dissensions,  restrain  their  passions,  and  opep 
a  fair  field  to  the  growth  and  exercise  of  ability  and  virtue  ; 


GREFXE.  2S' 

nnd  his  system,  though  loss  original  and  artificial,  was  more 
rational  and  judicious.  Of  his  laws,  be  said,  "  If  they  arc  not 
the  best  possible,  they  are  the  best  the  Athenians  are  capable 
of  receiving." 

5.  Solon  vested  the  supreme  power  in  an  assembly  of  the 
people,  composed  of  the  freemen  whose  age  exceeded  30 
years.  By  them  all  laws  were  enacted,  every  public  measure 
rietermined,  all  appointments  made;  and  to  them  an  appeal 
l;iy  from  all  courts  of  justice.  He  instituted  a  senate  or  coun- 
cil of  400,  afterward  increased  to  500 ;  restored  the  Areop'a- 
IHiis ;  and  divided  the  people  into  four  classes,  according  to 
their  wealth. 

6.  Commerce  and  agriculture  were  encouraged  ;  industry 
and  economy  were  enforced  ;  and  ingratitude,  disobedience 
to  parents,  and  opprobrious  language,  were  punished.  The 
father  who  had  taught  his  son  no  trade  could  not  claim  a 
support  from  him  in  his  old  age.  The  body  of  laws  which 
Solon  established  has  been  so  highly  esteemed,  that  it  has 
formed  the  basis  of  many  subsequent  systems  of  legislation. 

7.  The  different  laws  of  Athens  and  Sparta  produced,  in 
process  of  time,  a  corresponding  ditfercnco  in  the  character 
and  manners  of  the  people.  At  Athens,  the  arts  were  in  the 
highest  esteem  ;  at  Sparta,  they  were  despised.  At  Athens, 
peace  was  the  natural  state  of  the  republic,  and  the  refined 
enjoyment  of  life  the  aim  of  the  people.  At  Sparta,  war  was 
the  great  business  of  life,  and  no  amusements  were  practised 
except  such  as  were  military  or  athletic.  An  Athenian  was 
characterized  by  luxury;  a  Spartan.,  by  frugality:  the  virtues 
of  the  latter  were  more  severe ;  those  of  the  former,  more 
agreeable.  They  were  both,  however,  equally  jealous  of 
liberty,  and  equally  brave  in  war. 

8.  Before  the  death  of  Solon,  risis'lralus,  a  citizen  of  great 
wealth  and  eloquence,  by  courting  popularity  in  various  ways, 
found  means  to  raise  himself  to  the  sovereign  power,  which 
he  and  his  sons  retained  for  50  years.  He  exercised  a  munifi- 
cent and  splendid  dominion,  encouraged  the  arts  and  sciences, 
and  is  said  to  have  founded  the  first  public  library  known  to 
the  world,  and  to  have  first  collected  the  poems  of  Homer 
into  one  volume,  which  before  were  merely  repeated  in  de- 
tached portions. 

9.  Pisis'tratus  transmitted  the  sovereignty  to  his  sons  Hip'pi' 
as  and  Hippar'chus,  called  the  P  is  is  tr  at' idee.  They  governed, 
for  some  time,  with  wisdom  and  moderation;  but  at  length  an 
abuse  of  power  caused  a  conspiracy  to  be  formed  against  them 
and    their  government  was   overthrown   by   Harmo'dius   and 


24  GREECE. 

Arislogi'Lon.  Hippar'chus  was  sluin ;  and  Ilippias  not  long 
after  fled  to  Darius,  king  of  Persia,  who  was  then  meditating 
the  conquest  of  Greece ;  and  he  was  afterward  killed  in  the 
battle  of  Mar'athon,  fighting  against  his  countrymen. 


SECTION  VII. 

Greece  invaded  ht/  the  Pei'siavs  under  Darius :  Bailie  of 
Maralkon :  MUliades  :  Persian  Jnrasion  under  Xerxes : 
Tkemistocles :  Aristides:  Bailie  of  Thermnpylce :  Leoni 
das :  Bailies  of  Salamis,  Plalaa,  and  Mycale :  Cimon.  — 
FromB.  C.  490 /o  431. 

1.  The  period  from  the  first  Persian  invasion  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Peloponnesian  war  is  esteemed  tlie  most  glorious 
age  of  Greece.  The  series  of  victories  which  tlie  inhabitants 
obtained  over  the  Persians  are  the  most  splendid  recorded  in 
history. 

2.  Persia,  at  this  period,  was  far  the  most  powerful  empire 
in  the  world,  embracing  the  territories  included  in  modern 
Persia,  Turkey  in  Asia,  Egypt,  a  great  part  of  Tartary,  and 
part  of  Arabia.  The  Greek  colonics  in  Asia  Minor  were  sub- 
ject to  the  Persians,  who  had  likewise  made  a  conquest  of 
Thrace :  Macedonia  had  also  acknowledged  subjection ;  so 
that  the  Persian  dominion  extended  over  a  large  portion  of  the 
Grecian  people,  and  even  bordered  on  the  country  of  Greece. 

3.  The  Asiatic  Greeks  made  an  attempt  to  throw  off  the 
Persian  yoke,  and  were  assisted  by  the  Athenians.  Darius^ 
kins  of  Persia,  having  reduced  his  revolted  subjects  to  sub- 
mission,  formed  a  dctermmation,  m  consequence  of  the  course 
taken  by  the  Athenians,  to  make  an  entire  conquest  of  Greece  ; 
and  in  this  design  he  was  encouraged  and  assisted  by  the  ex- 
iled tyrant  Hippias. 

4.  Darius  despatched  heralds  to  each  of  the  Grecian  states, 
demanding  earth  and  water,  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  su- 
premacy. Thebes,  together  with  a  number  of  the  other  cities, 
and  most  of  the  islands,  submitted;  but  tlie  Athenians  and 
LacedsEmonians  were  so  indignant,  that,  forgetting  tlie  laws 
of  nations  and  of  humanity,  they  put  the  heralds  to  death  with 
the  utmost  ignominy.  At  one  place  they  were  thrown  into  a 
pit,  at  the  other  into  a  well,  and  told  there  to  take  their  earth 
and  water. 

5.  Darius  began  his  hostile  attack  both  by  sea  and  land. 
The  first  Persian  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Mardo'iiius, 


(iilEECE.  25 

was  wrecked  in  a  storm,  in  cloubliui!;  tlic  promontory  of  Athos, 
with  a  loss  of  no  less  than  300  vessels ;  a  second,  of  600  sail, 
ravaged  the  Grecian  islands  ;  while  an  immense  army,  consist- 
ing, according  to  the  lowest  statements  of  the  ancient  histori- 
ans, of  110,000  men,  commanded  by  Arlapher'nes  and  Datis, 
invaded  Attica. 

6.  This  formidable  host  was  met  on  the  narrow  plain  of 
Mar'athon  by  the  Athenian  army,  greatly  inferior  in  lunnber 
(stated  by  the  best  authorities  at  from  80,000  to  40,000),  under 
the  command  of  the  celebrated  Milti'ades,  who,  availing  him- 
self of  an  advantageous  position  of  the  ground,  gained  a  de- 
cisive victory,  and  drove  the  routed  invaders  to  their  ships. 
The  loss  of  the  Persians  was  6,300 ;  that  of  the  Athenians, 
only  192. 

7.  Miltiades,  by  this  victory,  rose  to  the  height  of  popularity 
and  influence,  which,  however,  he  lost  not  long  afterwards  by 
a  failure  in  an  attack  on  the  island  of  Par'os.  On  his  return 
from  this  expedition,  he  was  accused  of  treason  ;  and  though 
absolved  from  the  capital  charge,  yet  he  was  condemned  to 
pay  a  fine  of  50  talents  (about  50,000  dollars).  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  cHed  in  a  few 
days  of  the  wounds  which  he  received  at  Paros ;  but  the  fine 
was  paid  by  his  son  Cimon. 

8.  The  Athenians  were,  at  this  time,  divided  into  two  par- 
ties, one  of  which  favored  an  aristocratical,  and  the  other  a 
democratical,  form  of  government.  The  two  leaders  of  these 
parties  were  the  distinguished  statesmen  and  warriors,  Aristi- 
des  and  Tkemis'tocles  ;  Aristides  being  the  advocate  of  aristoc- 
racy, and  Themistocles  of  democracy. 

9.  Aristides,  who,  on  account  of  his  stern  integrity,  received 
(he  surname  of  the  Just,  was,  through  the  intrigues  of  his  great 
rival,  banished  for  ten  years  by  the  ostracism.  While  the 
people  were  giving  their  votes  for  his  exile,  it  happened  that  a 
citizen,  who  was  unable  to  write,  and  did  not  know  him  per- 
sonally, brought  Ills  shell  to  him,  and  requested  that  he  would 
write  the  name  of  Aristides  upon  it.  "  V/liy,  what  harm  has 
Aristides  ever  done  you  ?  "  said  he.  "  No  harm  at  all,"  an- 
swered the  citizen,  "  but  I  cannot  bear  to  hear  him  continually 
called  the  Jms<."  Aristides  smiled,  and,  taking  the  shell,  wrote 
his  name  upon  it,  and  quietly  went  into  banishment ;  but  ho 
was  recalled  soon  after  the  renewal  of  the  war. 

10.  The  death  of  Darius,  and  other  circumstances,  occa- 
sioned the  discontinuance  of  the  war  for  several  years  ;  but 
Xerxes,  the  young  Persian  monarch,  having  ascended  the 
throne,  was  eager  to  punish  Athens,  and  subdue  Greece. 
Having  spent  four  years  in  preparation,  he  collected  an  army 

3 


26  GREECE. 

greater  than  the  world  ever  saw,  either  before  etc  since.     Ac 
cording  to  Ilerod'otus,  the  Avhole  number  of  fighting  men,  in 
the  army  and  fleet,  exceeded  2,000,000  ;  and,  including  the 
retinue  of  sutlers,  slaves,  and  women,  the  whole  multitude  is 
said  to  have  exceeded  5,000,000. 

11.  The  fleet  consisted  of  upwards  of  1,200  galleys  of  war, 
besides  a  greater  number  of  transports  and  smaller  vessels. 
A  canal,  navigable  for  the  largest  galleys,  was  formed  across 
the  isthmus  which  joins  mount  Athos  to  the  continent ;  and, 
for  the  conveyance  of  the  army,  two  bridges  of  boats  were  ex- 
tended across  the  Hellespont,  at  a  jroint  where  the  width  is 
seven  furlongs. 

12.  Xerxes,  liaving  taken  a  station  on  an  eminence,  in  order 
to  gratify  his  vanity  by  viewing  the  vast  assemblage  which  lie 
had  collected,  —  the  earth  covered  with  his  troops,  and  the  sea 
with  his  vessels,  —  is  said  to  have  been  suddeidy  so  much 
affected  as  to  shed  tears,  upon  reflecting  that,  in  the  space  of  one 
hundred  years,  not  one  of  the  many  thousands  would  be  alive. 

13.  The  Persian  army  advanced  directly  towards  Athens, 
and  this  city  fortunately  possessed,  in  IVionis'todes,  a  leader 
of  extraordinary  talents,  peculiarly  fitted  for  conducting  the 
aj'duous  contest.  Most  of  the  other  states  united  in  assisting 
Athens  in  repelling  the  invaders,  Sparta  taking  the  lead  ;  but 
some  of  them  submitted  to  the  Pei"sians. 

14.  Leon' Idas,  king  of  Sparta,  with  a  small  army,  undertook 
the  defence  of  Thennop'ylcB,  a  naiTow  mountain  pass  or  defile 
on  the  coast,  connecting  Thessaly  and  Phocis.  Xerxes,  having 
approached  this  place,  sent  a  herald  to  Leonidas,  commanding 
him  to  deliver  up  his  arms,  to  whom  the  Spartan  replied,  with 
laconic  brevity,  "  Come  and  take  them."  For  two  days  the 
Pei-sians  strove  to  force  their  way,  but  were  repulsed  with 
great  slaughter  ;  but  having,  at  length,  discovered  a  by-path 
over  the  mountains,  the  defence  of  the  pass  became  impossible. 

15.  Leon'idas,  foreseeing  certain  destruction,  resolved,  in 
obedience  to  a  law  of  Sparta,  which  forbade  its  soldiers,  in  any 
case,  to  flee  from  an  enemy,  to  devote  his  life  to  the  honor  and 
service  of  his  country  ;  and,  animated  by  his  example,  the 
300  Spartans  under  his  command  detemiined  with  him  to  abide 
the  event.  With  the  fury  of  men  resolved  to  sell  their  lives 
at  the  dearest  rate,  they  fell  upon  the  Persian  camp,  and  were 
all  cut  off*,  after  having  made  a  dreadful  havoc  of  the  enemy. 
Two  only  of  the  Spartans,  these  having  been  accidentally  ab- 
sent, survived  the  battle.  A  monument  was  erected  on  the 
spot,  bearing  this  inscription,  written  by  Simon'ides :  "  0 
stranger !  tell  it  at  Lacedaemon,  that  we  died  here  in  obedv 
ence  to  her  laws." 


cREEcr..  27 

16.  The  Persians,  having  forced  the  pass  of  lliermopylae, 
poured  down  upon  Altica,  ravaging  the  country  with  fire  and 
Bword.  The  inhabitants  of  Atliens,  after  conveying  their 
women  and  children  to  the  islands  for  security,  betook  them- 
selves to  the  fleet,  abandoning  the  city,  which  the  Persians  pil- 
laged and  burnt. 

17.  Preparations  were  now  made  for  a  great  naval  battle 
The  Persian  fleet  consisted  of  1,200  galleys;  that  of  the 
(ireeks,  of  300,  and  it  was  commanded  by  Themis'tocles  and 
Aristi'des.  An  engagement  took  place  in  the  straits  of  Sal'- 
conis,  where  it  was  impossible  for  the  Persians  to  bring  their 
numerous  ships  regularly  into  action,  and  they  were  defeated 
with  immense  loss.  The  king,  who  had  seated  himself  on  an 
eminence  to  witness  the  battle,  terrified  at  the  result,  retreated, 
with  a  part  of  his  army,  to  his  own  dominions. 

18.  Xerxes  left  Mardo'nius,  with  300,000  men,  to  complete 
the  conquest  of  Greece  in  the  following  summer.  This  army, 
which  was  joined  by  many  Grecian  auxiliaries,  was  met  at 
Platcz'a^  early  in  the  next  season,  by  the  combined  forces  of 
Athens  and  Lacedcemon,  consisting  of  110,000  men,  under 
the  command  of  Aristi'des  and  Pausa'nias,  and  was  defeated 
with  tremendous  slaughter,  Mardo'nius  being  killed,  and  the 
most  of  his  men  being  slain  in  the  battle  and  the  subsequent 
massacre. 

19.  On  the  same  day  of  the  great  victory  of  Platce'a,  the 
Greeks,  under  Leotych'idcs  the  Lacedaemonian,  and  Xanthij)'- 
pus  the  Athenian,  engaged  and  destroyed  the  Persian  fleet  at 
the  promontory  of  Myc'a-le^  near  Ephesus.  The  Persian 
army  was  now  completely  destroyed.  Xerxes,  having  been 
entirely  frustrated  in  all  his  mad  schemes,  was  soon  after  as- 
sassinated, and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Arlaxerxes  Longim'- 
amis. 

20.  The  Persian  war,  however,  was  not  yet  terminated. 
The  Greeks,  in  their  turn,  became  the  assailants  and  invaders. 
They  undertook  to  defend  the  lonians,  who  had  thrown  off  the 
Persian  yoke.  The  Spartans,  commanded  by  Pausa'nias,  and 
the  Athenians,  by  Aristi'des  and  Ci'mon,  advanced  to  the  island 
of  Ci/pi'us,  which  they  took,  and  set  free  ;  and,  having  taken 
and  plundered  the  city  of  Bi/zan'tiim,  they  returned  with  im- 
mense booty. 

21.  Pausa'nias,  who  had  borne  a  distinguished  command  in 
this  war,  being  at  length  intoxicated  with  glory  and  power,  as- 
pired to  hold,  under  Persia,  the  dominion  of  Greece,  and,  in 
a  letter  to  Xerxes,  promised  to  effect  the  subjugation  of  the 
country,  on  condition  of  his  receiving  his  daughter  in  inar- 
nagc.     Being  convicted  by  the  ephori  of  this  treason,  he  took 


28  GREECE. 

refuge  in  the  temple  of  Minerva  wliere,  the  sanctity  of  the 
place  securing  him  from  violence,  he  was  doomed  to  perish  by 
hunger. 

22.  Themis' to  des,  the  great  Athenian  commander,  was  ac- 
cused of*  participating  in  the  treason  of  Pausanias,  and  was 
banished  by  the  ostracism.  Proceeding  to  Asia,  he  wrote  a 
letter  to  king  Artaxerxes,  in  which  he  said,  "  I,  Themistocles, 
come  to  thee,  who  have  done  thy  house  most  ill  of  all  the 
Greeks,  while  I  was  of  necessity  repelling  the  invasion  of  thy 
father,  but  yet  more  good,  when  I  was  in  safety,  and  his  return 
was  endangered."  He  was  permitted  to  live  in  great  splendor 
in  Persia,  and  there  died  in  exile,  leaving  an  almost  vmrivalled 
reputation  as  a  statesman  and  warrior  ;  but  if  to  his  great  tal- 
ents he  had  joined  an  unquestionable  integrity,  his  fame  would 
have  been  purer. 

23.  After  the  banishment  of  Themistocles,  the  affairs  of 
Athens  were,  for  a  short  time,  directed  by  AfisLi'des ;  and, 
upon  his  death,  the  whole  power  came  into  the  hands  of  Ci'- 
moil,  the  son  of  Milti'ades,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  statesmen 
and  warriors  that  Greece  ever  produced. 

24.  Cimon  maintained  the  political  influence  and  military 
power  of  Athens,  conducted  the  war  with  great  success,  and 
gained  two  great  victories  over  the  Persians  on  the  same  day, 
one  by  sea,  and  the  other  by  land,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Eurym'edon,  in  Asia  Minor. 

25.  A  powerful  party  at  length  arose  against  Cimon,  and 
procured  his  banishment  by  the  ostracism,  and  Pericles,  a 
young  man  of  noble  birth,  great  talents,  and  extraordinary  elo- 
quence, succeeded  him  in  authority. 

26.  But,  after  a  banishment  of  five  years,  Cimon  was  re- 
called, restored  to  the  command  of  the  anny,  gained  further 
important  victories  over  the  Persians,  and  finally  died  of  a 
wound  which  he  received  at  the  siege  of  Citium,  in  Cyprus. 

27.  The  Persian  war,  which  had  lasted,  wiwi  little  intermis- 
sion, about  fifty  years,  was  now  brought  to  a  fc"4'inination.  Ar- 
taxerxes,  finding  his  strength,  both  by  sea  and  land,  broken, 
sued  for  peace,  which  was  granted  on  condition  that  he  should 
give  freedom  to  all  the  Grecian  colonies  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
that  the  Persian  fleets  should  be  excluded  from  the  Grecian 
seas. 

28.  After  the  death  of  Cimon,  his  brother-in-law  Thucyd'- 
ides,  became  the  competitor  of  Per'icles  for  popular  favor  and 
authority.  A  war  of  eloquence  ensued,  and  Thucydides,  being 
worsted,  was  banished  by  the  ostracism,  and  the  lead  of  Pericles 
was,  from  this  time  till  his  death,  a  period  of  about  twenty  years, 
but  little  disputed 


GREECE.  29 

29.  lie  governed  Athens  with  almost  arbitrary  sway,  adorn- 
ed the  city  with  ma"ster-pieccs  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and 
painting,  patronized  the  arts  and  sciences,  celebrated  splendid 
games  and  festivals,  and  his  administration  formed  an  era  of 
great  internal  splendor  and  magnificence  ;  hut  he  exhausted 
the  public  revenue,  and  corrupted  the  manners  of  the  people. 

30.  The  time  of  the  Persian  war  was  the  period  of  the  high- 
est military  glory  of  the  Greeks,  and  tliey  owed  their  jjrosperity 
to  their  union.  But  after  this  war  had  ceased,  this  union  was 
dissolved,  and  the  jealousies  and  ambitious  views  of  the  rival 
states  were  again  revived.  Athens  had  been  rebuilt,  and  sur- 
rounded with  a  strong  wall.  But  to  this  Sparta  had  meanly 
objected,  and  Athens  saw  witli  pleasure  the  depopulation  of 
Sparta  by  an  eartliquake,  in  which  about  20,000  lives  were 
lost.  Sparta  also  suffered  greatly  about  this  time  by  the  insur- 
rection of  the  Hdofs,  or  slaves. 

31.  Although  the  Athenians  were  apparently  the  greatest 
sufferers  by  the  invasion,  their  city  being  burnt,  and  their 
country  laid  waste,  yet  they  derived  the  greatest  benefits  from 
its  effects.  In  consequence  of  their  naval  superiority,  and  the 
unrivalled  talents  of  their  commanders,  Milti'ndes,  Themis'- 
todes,  Arisli'des^  and  Ci'mon,  they  reached  the  summit  of 
political  influence  and  military  power,  and  attained  that  su- 
premacy in  Greece  which  the  Laccdfemonians  had  hitherto 
enjoyed. 

32.  The  politics  of  Greece,  for  a  considerable  time  after  the 
Persian  war,  turned  upon  the  rivalry  between  the  two  leading 
republics,  Athens  and  Laccda>mon.  The  former  was  powerful 
by  sea,  the  latter  by  land.  Athens  was  the  patroness  of  de- 
mocracy, Laccdcemon  of  aristocracy.  It  was  customary  for 
the  weaker  states,  for  their  security,  to  ally  themselves  with 
one  of  the  two  leading  ones  ;  and,  in  most  of  them,  there  were 
two  parties  in  continual  contest,  the  democrats  and  the  aris- 
tocrats :  the  former  naturally  adhered  to  Athens  ;  the  latter  to 
Sparta. 

33.  From  this  period  the  martial  and  patriotic  spirit  began 
to  decline.  An  acquaintance  with  Asia,  and  an  importation 
of  her  wealth,  introduced  a  relish  for  Asiatic  manners  and 
luxuries.  With  the  Athenians,  however,  this  luxurious  spirit 
was  under  the  guidance  of  taste  and  genius,  and  it  led  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  fine  arts,  which,  during  the  age  of  Per'it'es 
were  in  the  most  flourishing  state. 


30  GREECE. 


SECTION  VIII. 

Peloponnesian  War  :  Pericles :  Alcihiadcs :  BaliJe  of 
JEgos-Polmnns  :  Lysander :  Thirtij  Tyrants  :  Socrates  : 
Retreat  of  the  10^000 :  Peace  of  Antalc.idas :  Thehes : 
Epaininondas  :  Battles  of  Leuctra  and  Mantinea  :  Agesi' 
Jans.  —  From  B.  C.  ^'il  to  360. 

J.  In  tlic  latter  part  of  the  administration  of  Pcr'icles,  com- 
mencad  the  Pdoponiiesian  War.,  wliicli  grew  out  of  the  long- 
continued  rivalship  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  and  was  the 
most  im])ortant  and  celebrated  war  ever  carried  on  by  the 
Grecian  states  with  cacli  other. 

2.  This  contest  partook,  in  a  great  degree,  of  the  nature  of 
a  civil  war ;  and  through  the  time  of  its  continuance,  being  the 
age  of  Soc  rates  himself,  was  an  era  characterized  by  the  high 
perfection  to  which  the  arts,  philosophy,  and  refinement  had 
been  brought,  yet  it  was  carried  on  in  a  spirit  of  savage  ferocity, 
rarely  exemplified  among  civilized  nations  ;  a  boundless  scope 
was  given  to  ambition  and  party  rage  ;  all  the  ties  of  nature 
were  trampled  upon,  and  Greece  exhibited,  during  this  period, 
a  perpetual  scene  of  conflict  and  calamity. 

3.  The  Athenians  having  assisted  the  inhabitants  of  Corcy'ra 
against  the  Corinthians,  were  accused  by  the  latter  of  having 
thereby  violated  the  treaty  of  the  confederated  states  of  Pelopon- 
ne'sus,  and  an  appeal  to  arms  was  immediately  resolved  on. 

4.  Sparta  took  the  lead  against  Athens,  and  was  joined  by 
all  the  Peloponnesian  states,  except  Argos,  which  remained 
neutral ;  and  in  Northern  Greece,  by  the  JMegarians,  Bosotians, 
Locrians,  Phocians,  &c.  Athens  had  few  allies  ;  the  principal 
were  the  Thessalians,  Acarnanians,  and  several  islands.  The 
Peloponnesian  forces,  commanded  by  the  Spartan  king,  Ar- 
chid'amus,  amounted  to  60,000,  while  the  army  of  the  Athe- 
nians did  not  exceed  32,000  ;  but  the  navy  of  the  latter  was 
much  the  superior, 

5.  h\  the  first  year  of  the  war,  the  Lacedremonians  ravaged 
Attica,  and  laid  siege  to  Athens  ;  in  the  second  year,  the  city 
was  visited  by  a  dreadful  plagne.,  which  swept  away  multitudes  , 
and  among  its  victims  was  Pericles,  who  died  the  third  year  of 
the  war,  and  at  a  time  when  his  services  were  most  wanted. 
The  war,  however,  was  not  arrested  by  this  awful  calamity, 
but  continued  to  rage  for  several  years  in  a  similar  manner, 
and  with  nearly  equal  losses  on  both  sides. 

6.  After  the  death  of  Per'icles,   Clean,  the  leader  of  the 


GREECE.  31 

democratic  party,  had,  for  a  time,  the  direction  of  the  Athenian 
councils ;  but  he  was  slain  at  Amphip'olis,  in  a  battle  with 
Bras'idas,  the  Spartan  general,  who  was  also  mortally  wound- 
ed. *  After  the  death  of  Cleon,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
between  Athens  and  Sparta,  by  means  of  the  influence  of  Ni'- 
cins,  the  leader  of  the  aristocratic  and  j)acific  party. 

7.  But  the  war  was  again  soon  renewed  through  the  influ- 
ence of  AJciln'adcs,  who  now  took  the  lead  in  the  government 
of  Athens,  and  who  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  orators 
and  generals  of  his  age,  but  whose  want  of  principle  rendered 
his  talents  ruinous  both  to  himself  and  his  country. 

8.  An  expedition  was  sent  against  the  island  of  Sicih/,  under 
the  command  of  Alcihi ades  and  Ni'cias ;  but  the  former  was 
accused  of  misconduct  and  recalled,  and  the  latter  totally  de- 
feated and  slain.  Alcibiades  afterward  again  took  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  Athens,  and  gained  important  advan- 
tages ;  but  he  at  length  fell  into  disgrace,  and  was  banished, 
and  the  chief  command  of  the  Athenian  army  was  given  to 
Canon. 

9.  But  Lysnyi'der,  the  ablest  of  the  Lacedasmonian  generals, 
having  succeeded  to  the  command,  utterly  defeated  the  Athe- 
nian fleet  at  JE'gos-Pot'amos.,  on  the  Hellespont,  which  reduced 
Athens  to  the  last  extremity.  The  Lacedaemonians  blockaded 
the  city  by  laud  and  sea,  and  its  reduction  was  left  to  the  sure 
operation  of  famine. 

10.  The  Athenians,  anxious  to  avoid  utter  extermination, 
were  ready  to  accept  almost  any  terms  of  peace.  They  were 
spared  on  condition  that  they  should  demolish  their  port,  with 
all  their  fortifications,  limit  their  fleet  to  12  ships,  and  in  future 
undertake  no  military  enterprise,  except  under  the  command 
of  the  Lacedosmonians.  Thus  the  Peloponnesian  war  termi- 
nated by  the  humiliating  submission  of  Athens,  and  by  render- 
ing Lacedaj'mon  the  leading  power  in  Greece. 

11.  Lysander,  after  the  reduction  of  Athens,  abolished  the 
popular  government,  and  substituted  in  its  place  an  oligarchy 
consisting  of  30  magistrates,  whose  power  was  absolute,  and 
who,  from  their  atrocious  acts  of  cruelty,  were  styled  the 
Thirty  Tyrnnts.  In  the  space  of  eight  months,  1,500  citizens 
were  sacrificed  to  their  avarice  or  vengeance.  At  length 
Thrasybu'Ius,  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  f)atriots,  drove  the 
tyrants  from  the  seat  of  their  abused  power,  and  restored  the 
democratical  form  of  government. 

12.  But  pure  democracy  was  far  from  being  any  security,  at 
Athens,  against  acts  of  tyranny  and  oppression,  even  in  the 
most  enlightened  age  of  the  republic.     The  Atlienians  were 


32  GREECE. 

characterized  as  fickle  and  capricious ;  and,  in  some  of  their 
proceedings,  they  were  as  unjust  and  cruel  as  the  most  lawless 
despots. 

13.  The  name  of  Sod  rates  is  at  once  the  glory  and  the 're- 
proach of  Athens.  This  illustrious  philosopher,  who,  on  ac- 
count of  his  high  moral  views,  is  the  boast  of  the  pagan  world, 
and  who  attempted  to  introduce  among  his  countrymen  worthier 
sentiments  of  religion,  and  a  better  understanding  of  the  duties 
of  life,  was  accused  of  corrupting  the  youth,  and  condemneii 
by  the  assembly  of  Athens  to  die  by  poison. 

14.  During  his  imprisonment,  which  lasted  thirty  days,  he 
conducted  himself  with  the  greatest  dignity ;  refused  to  escape 
when  opportunity  offered  ;  conversed  with  his  friends  on  topics 
of  moral  philosophy,  particularly  the  immortality  of  the  soul ; 
and,  when  the  appointed  time  arrived,  drank  the  fatal  cup  of 
hemlock,  and  died  with  the  gi'eatest  composure. 

15.  The  philosophy  of  Socrates,  which  forms  an  important 
epoch  in  the  histoiy  of  the  human  mind,  was  wholly  promul- 
gated in  conversation,  not  in  writing ;  but  his  doctrines  and 
character  have  been  handed  down  to  us  by  two  of  his  most 
gifted  pupils,  Plato  and  Xenophon.  He  turned  all  the  powers 
of  his  mind  against  the  atheists,  materialists,  and  sceptics.  He 
attended  but  little  to  physical  science ;  he  ridiculed  the  meta- 
physical speculations  of  his  predecessors ;  and  introduced 
moral  philosophy,  by  teaching  mankind  to  govern  their  pas- 
sions, and  to  consider  their  actions  and  their  duties.  From 
this  it  was  said  of  him,  that  he  drew  down  philosophy  from 
heaven  to  earth. 

16.  About  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  death  of 
Darius  left  the  throne  of  Persia  to  his  son,  Artaxerxes  II. ;  but 
his  brother  Cyrus  attempted  to  dethrone  him,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose he  employed  upwards  of  10,000  Grecian  mercenaries ; 
and  after  the  battle  of  Cimaxa,  near  Babylon,  Cyrus,  and  also 
the  Grecian  commander,  were  slain.  The  remainder  of  the 
Grecian  army,  under  the  command  of  Xen'ophon,  made  a  re- 
treat, in  which  they  encountered  incredible  difficulties  and 
dangers,  in  traversing  an  enemy's  country  of  1,600  miles  in 
extent,  from  Babylon  to  the  shores  of  the  Euxine. 

17.  This  celebrated  return  of  the  Greeks,  usually  called  the 
Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  is  beautifully  described  by  Xen- 
ophon, and  is  considered  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  exploits 
in  military  history  ;  but  it  is  to  be  regi'etted  that  the  pupil  and 
biographer  of  Socrates  should  have  gathered  his  laurels  in  so 
rile  a  trade  as  that  of  a  mere  hireling  military  adventurer. 


GREECE.  33 

18.  The  Greek  cities  of  Asia  having  taken  part  with  Cyrus, 
the  Sjjartans,  under  their  king,  AgcsiJa'us,  engaged  in  their  de- 
fence, and  ilius  became  involved  in  the  war  with  the  Persians. 
But  the  king  of  Persia,  by  means  of  bribes,  induced  Athens, 
Thebes,  Corinth,  and  other  Grecian  states  jealous  of  the  Lace- 
il;emonians,  to  join  in  a  league  against  them.  Agesilaus  was 
obliged  to  return  from  Asia  Minor  to  protect  his  own  country  ; 
iind  he  defeated  the  confederates  at  Corone'a,  but  the  Spartan 
fleet  was  soon  after  defeated  by  the  Athenians  under  Conon 
near  Cnidos. 

19.  After  various  vicissitudes,  all  parties  became  weaiy  of 
the  war,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded,  called  the  j/cace 
of  Antalcidas,  from  the  Lacedajmonian  who  negociated  it. 
The  conditions  were,  that  all  the  Grecian  cities  of  Asia  should 
belong  to  Persia,  and  that  all  the  others  should  be  completely 
independent,  except  that  the  islands  of  Lemnos,  Scyros,  and 
Inibros  should  remain  under  the  dominion  of  Athens. 

20.  While  Athens  and  Sparta  had  been  for  some  time  de- 
clining, Thebes,  emerging  from  obscurity,  rose,  for  a  short 
period,  to  a  degree  of  splendor  superior  to  that  of  all  the  other 
states.  The  Spartans,  jealous  of  its  rising  greatness,  took  ad- 
vantage of  some  internal  dissensions,  and  seized  upon  its  cita- 
del ;  but  it  was  recovered,  and  the  independence  of  Thebes 
was  again  restored  by  the  efforts  of  Pchp'idas  and  Epaminon'- 
das,  two  flimous  Thebans,  admired  for  their  talents  .and  ex- 
ploits, and  for  their  faithful  friendship  for  each  other. 

21.  A  war  between  the  two  states  ensued  ;  and  the  Theban 
army  of  6,000  men,  commanded  by  Epaminondas  and  Pe- 
Jopidas,  gained  the  memorable  battle  of  Lexiclra.  In  this 
battle,  the  Thebans  lost  only  300  men,  while  the  Spartans  lost 
4,000,  together  with  their  king,  Clcom'hrotus  ;  and  it  was  with 
mortification  and  astonishment  that  they  saw  themselves  defeat- 
ed I)y  numbers  greatly  inferior,  a  thing  unknown  for  ages. 

22.  The  victorious^Thebans,  headed  by  Epaminondas,  and 
joined  by  many  of  the  Grecian  states,  entered  the  territories 
of  Lacedffimon,  and  overran  all  Laconia  with  fire  and  sword, 
to  the  very  suburbs  of  the  capital.  This  covmtry  had  not  been 
ravaged  l/y  a  hostile  army  for  COO  years  ;  and  the  boast  of  the 
inhabitants,  "  that  never  had  tlie  women  of  Sparta  beheld  the 
smoke  of  an  enemy's  camp,"  was  now  done  away. 

23.  The  Theban  commander,  having  completely  humbled 
the  power  of  Sparta,  returned  to  Thebes  with  liis  victorious 
army :  not  long  after,  the  war  being  renewed,  he  gained  an- 
other great  victory  over  the  Lacedtemonians,  commanded  by 


34  GREECE 

Agesila'us,  and  assisted  by  the  Athenians,  at  Mantine'a ;  but 
lie  fell  mortally  wounded  in  the  moment  of  victory. 

24.  Epaminon'das  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  char- 
acters of  Greece,  equally  eminent  as  a  philosopher,  a  states- 
man, a  general,  and  a  citizen.  He  raised  his  country  to  its 
highest  eminence  in  military  renown,  and  its  power  and  splen- 
dor perished  with  him. 

25.  The  battle  of  Mantine'a  was  followed  by  a  peace  be- 
tween all  the  Grecian  states,  establishing  the  independence  of 
each  city.  Soon  afterward,  the  Spartans,  under  the  command 
of  Agesila'us,  proceeded  to  Egypt,  to  assist  Tachos,  the  king 
of  that  country,  against  Nectane'bus,  who  aspired  to  the  throne. 
But  when  the  Egyptians,  who  crowded  to  see  the  famous  war 
rior,  beheld  a  little,  deformed,  lame  old  man,  sitting  on  the  sea- 
shore, clad  in  homely  attire,  they  could  scarcely  conceal  their 
disappointment.  In  consequence  of  some  personal  affront  re- 
ceived from  Tachos,  Agesilaus  deserted  him,  and  raised  hia 
competitor  to  the  throne.  Having  set  sad  for  Sparta,  he  died 
on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  leaving  a  high  reputation  as  an  able 
statesman  and  warrior. 


SECTION   IX. 

Philip  of  Macedon :    Sacred    War :    Battle    of   Chceronea 
Alexander  the  Great :    Conquest    of  Persia :    Battles    of 
the  Gr  aniens^  Issus,  and  Ariel  a :    Alexander'' s    Death.  — 
From  B.  C.  360  to  324. 

1.  After  the  death  of  Agesila'us,  little  occurs  in  the  history 
of  Greece  deserving  notice,  till  the  appearance  of  Philip  of 
Macedon.  The  several  states  were  now  in  an  abject  condition, 
the  inhabitants  having  greatly  degenerated  from  the  patriotism 
and  valor  of  their  ancestors. 

2.  Athens,  at  this  time  the  most  prominent  of  the  republics, 
was  sunk  in  luxury  and  dissipation  ;  yet  she  was  distinguished 
for  her  cultivation  of  literature  and  the  arts.  Sparta,  weakened 
by  the  new  independence  of  Peloponne'sus,  and  corrupted  by 
the  introduction  of  gold,  had  abandoned  her  characteristic  sim- 
plicity and  severity  of  manners,  and  was  greatly  reduced  from 
her  former  greatness.  Under  these  circumstances,  Philip 
formed  the  ambitious  project  of  bringing  the  whole  of  Greece 
under  his  dominion. 

3.  The  kingdom  of  Mag'edon,  or  Macedonia,  had  existed 


G^IEECE.  35 

upwards  of  400  years,  but  it  had  not  risen  to  any  considerable 
eminence  ;  it  had  formed  no  part  of  the  Greek  confederacy, 
and  had  had  no  voice  in  the  Amphictyon'ic  council.  The  in- 
habitants boasted  of  the  same  origin  with  the  Greeks,  but  they 
had  had  little  intercourse  with  the  mother  country,  and  were 
considered  by  the  latter  as  barbarians. 

4.  The  Macedonian  Empire^  which  was  commenced  by 
I'hilip,  and  completed  by  his  son  Alexander,  formed  the  third 
great  empire  of  antiquity.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  Grpcian 
Empire^  because  Greece,  in  its  most  extensive  sense,  included 
Macedonia,  and  because  all  Greece  was  subject  to  Philip  and 
Alexander. 

5.  Philip,  when  only  ten  years  old,  was  sent  as  a  hostage 
to  Thebes,  and  there  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  -an  excellent 
Grecian  education  under  Epaminondas.  At  the  age  of  24 
years  he  ascended  the  throne.  He  possessed  great  military 
and  political  talents,  and  was  eminently  distinguished  for  his 
consummate  artifice  and  address.  In  order  to  accomplish  his 
design  of  bringing  all  the  states  of  Greece  under  his  dominion, 
he  cherished  dissensions  among  them,  and  employed  agents  or 
pensionaries  in  each,  with  a  view  of  having  every  public 
measure  directed  to  his  advantage. 

6.  The  Phocians  had  long  cultivated  a  valuable  tract,  called 
,he  Cirrhsean  plain,  which,  it  was  now  maintained,  had  been, 
in  a  former  age,  consecrated  to  the  Delphian  Apollo ;  and  it 
was  decreed,  by  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons,  that  they 
should  cease  to  use  the  sacred  land,  imder  the  penalty  of  a 
heavy  fine.  From  this  circumstance  a  contest  arose,  called 
the  Sacred  War,  in  which  almost  all  the  states  of  Greece  took 
a  part,  and  which  was  carried  on  with  spirit  for  ten  years. 
The  Thcbans,  Locrians,  Thessalians,  and  others,  undertook  to 
punish  the  Phocians,  who  were  supported  by  Athens,  Sparta, 
and  some  other  states. 

7.  Philip,  having  taken  and  destroyed  the  city  of  Olynthus., 
nt  length  availed  himself  of  the  opportunity,  which  this  war 
afforded,  of  bringing  his  power  into  full  contact  with  the  Gre- 
cian states.  He  proposed  to  act  as  arbitrator  of  the  matter  in 
dispute,  and  procured  himself  to  be  elected  a  member  of  the 
Amphictyonic  council  ;  and  he  was  afterwards  styled  the  Ai/i' 
phictyoiiic  general.  The  Athenians,  suspicious  of  his  designs, 
refused  to  acknowledge  the  election,  and,  being  now  guided  by 
the  inflammatory  eloquence  of  De?nos'thenes,  rather  than  by 
the  pacific  counsels  of  Pho'cion,  they  were  plunged  into  a  de 
structive  contest  with  their  powerful  rival  and  neighbor. 

8.  A  second  Sacred  War  drew  Philip   again  into  Greece 
The  Locrians  of  Amphis'sa  having  encroached  upon  the  coii- 


36  CREECE. 

secrated  ground  of  Delplii,  and  liaving  refused  to  obey  the 
decrees  of  the  Anipliictyonic  council,  Philip  was  invited,  as 
their  general,  to  vindicate  their  authority  by  forte  of  arms. 
Tlie  Atlienians  and  Thcljans,  roused  to  the  utmost  enthusiasm 
by  Demos'thencs,  united  to  resist  the  growing  power  of  this 
ambitious  monarch.  Tlie  two  armies  met  at  C/Krrone'a,  and, 
after  a  most  obstinate  battle,  Philip  gained  a  decisive  victory, 
which  secured  to  him  an  entire  ascendency  in  Greece. 

9.  It  was  not  the  policy  of  the  conqueror  to  treat  the  several 
slates  as  a  vanquished  people.  He  permitted  them  to  retam 
their  separate  independent  governments,  while  he  directed  and 
controlled  all  the  public  measures. 

10.  Philip  next  projected  the  invasion  of  Persia,  and,  con- 
voking a  gefleral  c  uncil  of  the  states,  laid  before  them  his 
design,  which  was  nighly  popular,  and  he  was  chosen  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  united  forces  of  all  the  states  of  Greece. 
Having  made  formidable  preparations  for  his  expedition,  and 
being  just  ready  for  his  departure,  he  was  assassinated  by  a 
captain  of  his  guards,  while  solemnizing  the  nuptials  of  his 
daughter.  The  news  of  Philip's  death  caused  the  most  tumul- 
tuous joy  among  the  Athenians,  who  indulged  the  vain  hope  of 
again  recovering  their  liberty. 

11.  Alexander^  (afterward  surnamed  the  Great.,)  the  son  of 
Philip,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Macedon,  at  the  age  of  20 
years.  He  had'been  educated  by  Ar'istolle,  the  most  eminent 
philosopher  of  his  time,  and,  at  an  early  age,  he  gave  proofs 
of  a  love  of  learning,  a  generous  and  heroic  disposition,  dis- 
tinguished talents,  and  unbounded  ambition. 

12.  Demosthenes  exerted  all  his  eloquence  to  persuade  his 
countrymen  to  unite  against  the  youthful  king.  But  Alexan- 
der, having  reduced  to  subjection  some  barbarous  nations  to 
the  north  of  Macedon,  turned  the  whole  force  of  his  arms  upon 
Greece.  The  Thcbans,  who  had  risen  in  rebellion,  were  de- 
feated with  great  slaughter,  their  city  razed  to  the  ground,  and 
the  inhabitants,  to  the  number  of  30,000,  sold  for  slaves. 
These  dreadful  acts  of  severity  so  intimidated  the  other  states, 
that  they  immediately  submitted  to  his  dominion. 

13.  Alexander  then  assembled  the  deputies  of  the  Grecian 
states  at  Cor'inth,  and  renewed  the  proposal  of  invading  Persia, 
then  ruled  by  Dari'us  Codoin'anns,  anil  he  was  appointed,  as 
his  father  had  before  been,  gencraliss'mo.  He  had,  for  his 
companions  in  arms,  Parme'nio  and  other  officers,  who  liad 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  v/ars  of  Philip. 

14.  With  an  army  of  30,000  foot  and  5,000  horse,  the  sum 
of  only  70  talents,  and  provisions  merely  for  a  single  month 


GREECE.  37 

he  crossed  the  Hel'lespont,  in  order,  with  means  apparently 
so  inadequate,  to  accomplish  his  arduous  enterprise.  He  first 
proceeded  to  the  site  of  Ilium,  or  Troy,  and  offered  sacrifices 
to  the  manes  of  the  heroes  who  fidl  in  the  Trojan  war,  partic- 
ularly Achil'les^  whom  he  pronounced  to  be  the  most  fortu 
nale  of  men,  in  having  Patro'chis  fo"'  his  friend,  and  Homer 
for  liis  panegyrist. 

15.  The  Persian  satraps  who  ruled  the  western  provinces 
of  the  empire  met  him,  on  the  l)anks  of  ihc  little  river  Grani'- 
cus,  with  an  army  of  100,000  foot,  and  20,000  horse.  Here 
an  obstinate  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  Persians  were 
defeated,  with  the  loss,  according  to  Plutarch,  of  22,000  men, 
while  the  Macedonians  lost  only  34.  In  this  battle  Alexander 
escaped  very  narrowly  with  his  life.  Being  attacked  Ly  two 
ofiicers,  one  of  whom  was  about  to  cleave  his  head  with  a 
battle-axe,  he  was  preserved  by  Cli/tiis,  who  prevented  the 
blow  by  disabling  the  assailant. 

16.  The  consequences  of  this  victory  were  important  to 
Alexander,  as  it  put  him  in  possession  of  the  city  of  Sai'dis, 
with  all  its  riches;  and  he  soon  after  took  Mile'lus^  Halicar- 
vas'sus,  and  other  places  of  importance. 

17.  The  next  campaign  opened  early  in  the  spring,  when 
the  great  battle  of  Issus  was  fought.  The  Persian  army, 
stated  at  about  600,000  men,  commanded  by  the  king  in 
person,  was  defeated  with  prodigious  slaughter,  no  less  than 
1 10,000  being  killed,  while  the  Macedonians  lost  only  450. 
The  engagement  took  place  in  a  narrow  defile,  where  only 
a  small  part  of  the  Persian  army  could  be  brought  into  action. 

18.  The  mother,  wife,  and  two  daughters  of  Darius,  fell 
mto  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  who  treated  his  royal  caj)- 
tives  with  the  greatest  delicacy  and  respect.  Darius,  hearing 
of  Alexander's  kindness  towards  his  family,  sent  an  embassy 
to  him,  offering,  for  their  ransom,  the  sum  of  10,000  talents 
(about  .£2,000,000  sterling),  and  proposing  a  treaty  of  peace 
and  alliance,  with  the  further  offer  of  his  daughter  in  mar- 
riage, and  all  the  country  between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
-lEga^'an  Sea  as  her  dower. 

19.  When  the  offer  was  laid  before  Alexander's  council, 
Parme'nio  is  reported  to  have  said,  "  If  I  were  Alexander,  I 
would  accept  the  terms."  "  And  so  would  I,"  replied  Alex- 
ander, "  were  I  Parmenio."  The  answer  which  he  returned 
to  the  proposal  imported  that  he  had  invaded  Asia  to  avenge 
the  unprovoked  aggressions  of  the  Persian  monarchs ;  that,  if 
Darius  would  come  to  him,  and  ask  for  his  wife  and  family, 
he  would  willingly  deliver  them  to  him  ;  but  if  he  proposed  to 
dispute  the  sovereignty,  he  would  find  him  ready  to  oppose  him. 

4 


38  (JREECE. 

20.  He  next  directed  his  course  towards  llie  rich  and  com- 
mercial city  of  Tijre^  and  demanded  admittance  into  it,  in 
order  to  perform  a  sacrifice  to  the  Tyrian  Her'cules.  But 
the  Tyrians  refusing  to  grant  it,  he  was  so  much  exasperated, 
that  he  resolved  to  reduce  the  place,  which  lie  accomplished 
after  a  siege  of  seven  months.  On  this  occasion  he  exercised 
a  piece  of  wanton  cruelty,  by  ordering  2,000  men  to  be  cru- 
cified, in  addition  to  all  those  who  were  put  to  the  sword,  or 
sold  into  slavery. 

21.  Having  invested  and  taken  the  city  of  Gaza,  which 
made  an  obstinate  resistance,  he  sold  10,000  of  the  inhabitants 
for  slaves,  and  dragged  Be'l.is,  its  brave  defender,  at  the  wheels 
of  his  chariot. 

22.  Alexander  next  proceeded  to  Egypt,  which  was  then 
subject  to  Persia ;  but  it  readily  submitted  to  his  authority. 
Amidst  incredible  fatigues,  he  led  his  army  through  the  deserts 
of  Lybia  to  visit  the  temple  of  Jupiter- Amnion ,  and,  as  the 
reward  of  his  labors,  was  gratified  by  receiving  the  title  of 
the  son  of  Jupiter.  While  in  Egypt,  he  commenced  a  more 
useful  and  lasting  monument  of  his  greatness,  by  founding 
the  city  o?  Alexan' dria,  afterward  the  capital  of  Lower  Egypt, 
the  seat  of  the  Ptolemies,  and,  for  a  long  time,  one  of  the 
greatest  commercial  cities  in  the  world. 

23.  Returning  from  this  romantic  expedition,  he  received 
again  advantageous  proposals  from  Darius,  who  offered  to  sur- 
render to  him  his  whole  dominions  to  the  west  of  the  Euphra- 
tes ;  but  he  haughtily  rejected  the  offer,  telling  him  "  the 
world  could  no  more  admit  two  masters  than  two  suns." 

24.  Having  crossed  the  Euphrates,  with  an  army  of  nearly 
50,000  men,  he  met  that  of  Darius,  which  is  said  to  have 
amounted  to  about  700,000.  A  tremendous  battle  ensued, 
in  which  the  Persians  were  entirely  defeated,  with  a  loss  stated 
at  300,000  men,  while  that  of  Alexander  was  only  about  500. 
This  engagement  took  place  near  the  village  of  Gattga?ne'la, 
but  it  is  usually  called  the  battle  of  Arbe'la,  from  a  town 
farther  distant. 

25.  This  great  battle  decided  the  fate  of  Persia,  and  intro- 
duced a  new  era  into  the  history  of  the  world.  From  that 
period,  Europe  has  maintained  the  superiority  over  Asia, 
which  was  then  acquired.  Darius,  having  first  escaped  into 
Media,  and  afterwards  into  Bactria,  was  there  betrayed  by 
Bessus,  the  satrap  of  the  province,  and  murdered  ;  and,  not 
long  after,  the  whole  Persian  empire  submitted  to  the  con- 
queror. 

26.  Alexander,  not  yet  satiated  with  conquest,  penetrated 
into  India,  and,  in  a  great  battle,  defeated  Po'rus,  an  illustn- 


GREECE.  39 

ous  sovereign  of  that  country.  He  was  projecting  further 
achievements,  when  his  soldiers,  seeing  no  end  to  their  toils, 
refused  to  proceed,  and  demanded  that  they  might  be  permit- 
ted to  return  to  their  country. 

27.  Finding  it  impossible  to  overcome  tlieir  reluctance,  he 
returned  to  the  Indus,  whence,  sending  round  his  fleet  to  the 
Persian  gulf  under  Ne-ar'chus,  he  marched  his  army  across 
the  desert  to  Fcrscp'olis,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Bahylon, 
which  he  chose  for  the  seat  of  his  Asiatic  empire  ;  and,  having 
resided  here  some  time,  he  was  .<;cized  with  a  fever,  brought 
on,  according  to  some  writers,  by  excessive  drinking,  and  soon 
after  died,  in  the  83d  year  of  his  age,  and  the  13th  of  liis  reign. 

28.  Alexander  was  the  most  renowned  hero  of  antiquity, 
surpassing  all  others  in  the  rapidity,  extent,  and  splendor  of 
his  conquests.  Some  other  conquerors  have  shed  more  blood, 
and  have  waged  war  on  a  more  cruel  system ;  but  no  one  ever 
bestowed  such  fatal  brilliancy  upon  the  hateful  lust  of  con- 
quest ;  nor  has  any  other  person,  perhaps,  been  the  cause  of 
more  misery  to  mankind,  if,  to  the  slaughter  occasioned  by 
his  own  wars,  we  take  into  the  account  the  influence  which  his 
example  has  had  on  the  career  of  others  who  have  made  him 
their  model. 

29.  His  extraordinary  abilities,  his  romantic  and  daring 
spirit,  and  the  unparalleled  splendor  of  his  successes,  have 
been  the  more  mischievous,  in  their  example,  from  the  amia- 
ble and  generous  qualities  which  formed  a  part  of  his  charac- 
ter. He  possessed  talents  which  might  have  rendered  liim 
distinguished  as  a  statesman  and  a  benefactor  to  his  species; 
vet  it  was  to  his  military  renown  alone  that  he  owed  the  sur- 
name of  Great. 

30.  Though,  in  the  early  part  of  his  career,  he  was  distin- 
guished for  self-government,  yet  he  became  intoxicated  by  his 
extraordinary  success ;  and  his  vanity,  which  was  naturally 
excessive,  being  cherished  by  the  extravagant  adulations  of  the 
sycophants  who  surrounded  him,  he  was,  at  length,  induced 
to  believe  himself  the  son  of  .Jupiter,  and  a  god,  tliat  he  could 
do  no  wrong,  and  that  his  will  ought  to  be  the  supreme  law 
to  his  subjects.  With  these  views,  he  gave  himself  up  to  un- 
bounded indulgence,  and  to  acts  of  the  most  atrocious  cruelty 
and  ingratitude. 

31.  His  most  celebrated  general,  Parme'7iio,  who  had  as- 
sisted him  in  gaining  all  his  victories,  he  caiised  to  be  assas- 
sinated on  mere  suspicion.  His  friend  Clytus,  who  had  saved 
his  life  at  the  Grani'cus,  he  ran  through  the  body  with  a  spear, 
because  he  contradicted  him,  when  heated  with  wine.  He 
caused  the  philosopher  CalUs'thenes  to  be  put  to  death,  with 


40  GREECF.. 

the  most  cruel  tortures,  because  he  refused  to  pay  liim  adora- 
tion as  a  divinity. 

32.  His  personal  qualities  and  exploits  were  such  as  man- 
kind are  too  much  inclined  to  admire ;  and  his  history  shows 
how  easily  uninterrupted  success  degiades  the  character  and 
corrupts  the  heart ;  and  how  necessary  disappointments  and 
nisibrlunes  are  to  teach  us  moderation,  justice,  and  humanity. 


SECTION   X. 

Alexander'' s  Successors  :  Demosthenes  :  Phocion  :  Demetrius 
Phalereus :  Achaan  League :  PJiilopcemen :  Subjugation 
of  Macedonia  and  of  Greece.  —  From  B.  C.  324  to  146. 

1.  Alexander  named  no  successor,  but,  on  his  death-bed,  he 
gave  his  ring  to  Perdic'cas,  one  of  his  generals ;  and,  upon 
being  asked  to  whom  he  left  his  empire,  he  replied,  "  to  the 
most  worthy."  His  vast  empire  was  soon  rent  in  pieces  by 
the  greedy  soldiers  who  had  assisted  him  in  the  acquisition  of 
it,  and  a  period  of  confusion,  bloodshed,  and  crime  ensued, 
to  which  civilized  nations  can  scarcely  furnish  a  parallel. 

2.  The  generals  of  the  army  appointed  PJdlip  Aridcs'jis, 
the  brother  of  Alexander,  with  his  infant  son  by  Roxa'na,  to 
succeed  him  ;  and  Perdic'cas  was  made  regent.  The  empire 
was  divided  into  33  governments,  distributed  among  as  many 
of  the  principal  officers.  Hence  arose  a  series  of  intrigues, 
and  fierce  and  bloody  wars,  which  resulted  in  the  total  extir- 
pation of  Alexander's  family,  and,  after  the  defeat  of  Antig'- 
071113,  one  of  his  generals,  (who  had  obtained  possession  of 
his  principal  dominions  in  Asia.)  in  the  famous  battle  of  Ipsi/s, 
in  a  new  division  of  the  empire  into  four  kingdoms,  namely, 
that  of  Egypt,  under  PtoVemy  ;  Macedonia,  including  Greece, 
under  Cnssan'der ;  Thrace,  together  with  Bithynia,  under 
Lysim'achus  ;  and  Syria,  &c.,  under  Seleu'cus. 

3.  The  kingdom  of  Thrace  lasted  only  till  B.  C.  281,  when 
Lysim'achus  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Seleu'cus,  and  that  of 
Macedonia  till  the  battle  of  Pydna,  B.  C.  168.  The  two  most 
powerful  kingdoms  were  Syria  and  Egypt ;  the  former  con- 
tinued under  the  sceptre  of  the  Seleu'cidce,  and  the  latter  under 
that  of  the  Ptolemies,  till  they  were  both  annexed  to  the  Roman 
empire. 

4.  During  the  progress  of  Alexander's  conquests,  various 
attempts  were  made   by   the  Grecian  states  to  throw  oif  the 


OREECK.  41 

yoke  of  Macedonia.  The  Spartans,  especially,  excited  a 
[lowerful  insurrection,  but  they  were  subdued  by  Antip'ater^ 
who  liad  been  left  by  Alexander  to  govern  Macedonia  in  liis 
ubsenco. 

5.  The  news  of  Alexander's  death  occasioned  great  joy  at 
Athens,  and  the  eloquence  of  Demos' theiics  was  again  exertea 
to  rouse  his  countrymen  to  secure  their  liberty.  But  he  was 
still  opposed  by  his  former  antagonist,  the  incorruptible  and 
prudent  Pho'cion^  who  continued  a  strenuous  advocate  for 
peace,  and  whose  language  was,  "  Since  the  Athenians  are 
no  longer  able  to  fill  their  wonted  glorious  sphere,  let  them 
adopt  counsels  suited  to  their  abilities,  and  endeavor  to  court 
the  friendship  of  a  power  which  they  cannot  provoke  but  to 
their  ruin." 

().  The  counsels  of  Demosthenes  prevailed  so  far,  that  the 
Greeks  formed  a  confederacy,  and  made  an  eflbrt  to  recover 
their  liberty;  but  they  were  finally  defeated  by  Antip'atcr, 
and  Athens  was  obliged  to  purchase  peace  by  the  sacrifice  of 
her  ten  chief  public  speakers,  among  whom  the  renowned 
orntor  Deinosthcnea  was  included.  But  he  put  an  end  to  his 
life  by  poison,  in  order  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  his 
enemies. 

7.  Antip'ater  was  succeeded,  in-  the  government  of  Mace- 
donia by  Folt/sper'chcm,  who  restored,  for  a  short  time,  the 
Grecian  states  to  independence.  Athens  renewed  its  scenes 
of  turbulence,  anrl  proceeded  to  put  to  death  the  friends  of 
Antipater,  and,  among  others,  the  venerable  Pho'cion,  who 
was  upwards  of  80  years  of  age.  He  was  eminent  for  his 
public  and  private  virtues,  and  had  been  45  times  appointed 
governor  of  Athens.  To  a  friend,  who  lamented  his  fate,  he 
said,  "  This  is  no  more  than  what  I  expected ;  this  treatment 
the  most  illustrious  citizens  of  Athens  have  received  before 
me." 

8.  Polyspercb.on  was  succeeded  by  Cassander,  who  appoint- 
ed Demetrius  Pliale'reus  governor  of  Athens.  Under  his  wise 
and  beneficent  government,  which  continued  12  years,  the  city 
enjoyed  quiet  and  prosperity,  and  the  Athenians  testified  their 
gratitude  by  erecting  to  him  360  statues. 

9.  From  this  time,  Athens  never  enjoyed  anything  more 
than  a  precai-ious  independence.  Her  political  power  and 
greatness  had  ceased,  and  her  citizens,  formerly  so  distin- 
guished for  their  spirit  of  liberty  and  independence,  became 
no  less  so  for  their  excessive  flattery  and  abject  servility, 

10.  From  this  period  to  the  final  subjugation  of  Greece  by 
the  Romans,  the  different  states  underwont  a  variety  of  revo* 

4* 


^  GREECE. 

lutions ;  but  they  present  little  that  Is  interesting,  and  still  lesg 
that  is  pleasing.  An  immense  number  of  Gauls,  under  their 
king  Bremms,  ravaged  the  country ;  but  they  were  at  last 
mostly  cut  off. 

11.  Scarcely  recovering  from  the  inroads  of  these  barbari- 
ans, the  states  of  Peloponnesus  were  involved  in  calamities 
by  the  invasion  of  the  celebrated  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epi'rus, 
the  greatest  general  of  his  age.  He  made  an  unsuccessful 
attack  on  Sparta,  and  was  afterward  slain,  at  the  siege  of  At- 
gos,  with  a  tile  thrown  by  a  woman  from  the  top  of  a  house. 

12.  The  last  effort  for  maintaining  the  liberty  and  independ- 
ence of  Greece  was  made  by  a  confederacy,  styled  the 
AchcB'an  League,  which  was  at  first  formed  by  only  four  small 
cities  of  Peloponnesus  ;  not  long  after,  eight  other  cities  joined, 
and,  at  last,  most  of  the  Grecian  states.  The  government 
of  this  confederacy  was  committed  to  Ara'tus,  with  the  title 
of  pretor.  He  formed  the  design  of  establishing  the  independ- 
ence of  all  Greece,  but  the  jealousy  of  some  of  the  principal 
states  rendered  the  scheme  abortive. 

13.  Aratus  was  succeeded  by  Philopoe'men,  a  man  of  integ- 
rity and  distinguished  talents,  styled  "  the  last  of  the  Greeks," 
because,  after  him,  Greece  produced  no  leader  worthy  of  her 
former  glory.  Having  triumphed  over  the  Spartans  and  jEto- 
lians,  he  was  taken  and  put  to  death  in  an  expedition  against 
the  revolted  Messenians. 

14.  The  Romans,  who  had  now  become  the  most  powerful 
nation  in  the  world,  being  solicited  by  the  iEtolians  to  afford 
them  aid  against  the  Macedonians,  readily  complied  with  the 
request ;  and  their  army,  under  the  command  of  Quin'lius 
Flamin'ius,  defeated  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  at  Cyyioccph'- 
al-e,  and  proclaimed  liberty  to  the  Grecian  states.  Nearly 
30  years  afterwards,  a  second  Roman  army,  commanded  by 
Paulus  MmiVius,  entered  Greece,  in  a  war  against  Per'seus, 
son  of  Philip,  who  was  entirely  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Pydna, 
and  was  led  captive  to  Rome,  to  grace  the  triumph  of  the  con- 
queror, and  Macedonia  was  reduced  to  a  Roman  province. 

15.  The  Romans,  jealous  of  the  power  of  the  Achaean 
League,  endeavored  to  weaken  it  by  cherishing  divisions 
among  the  states,  and  by  corrupting  the  principal  citizens. 
At  length  the  Spartans,  in  a  contest  with  the  Achaean  states, 
sought  the  aid  of  the  Romans,  Metel'lus  led  his  legions  into 
Greece,  and  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Achaean  army. 
The  remainder  of  the  Achaean  forces  having  shut  themselves 
up  in  Cor'intli,  the  Roman  consul,  Mum'mius,  completed  the 
conquest  by  taking  and  destroying  that  city.    The  Achaean  con- 


GREECE.  43 

Btitution  was  soon  after  dissolved,  and  the  wliole  of  Greece  was 
reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  under  the  name  of  Acha'ia. 

16.  But  Greece,  though  subject  to  the  lloman  arms,  ac- 
quired, by  her  arts  of  peace,  her  learning,  genius,  and  taste, 
a  silent  superiority  over  her  conquerors,  and  was  regarded 
with  respect.  The  most  distinguished  Romans  were  educated 
in  the  Grecian  scliools  of  philosophy ;  Rome  derived  her 
learning  from  Athens,  and  the  victors  became  the  disciples  of 
the  vanquished. 

17.  In  reviewing  the  history  of  this  extraordinary  people, 
we  see  much  to  admire,  and  much  also  to  condemn.  With 
regard  to  genius,  taste,  learning,  patriotism,  love  of  liberty,  and 
heroism,  they  were  unrivalled  among  the  nations  of  antiquity. 

18.  In  perusing  the  history  of  Athens,  a  circumstance  whicl> 
must  forcibly  impress  tlie  reader  is  the  injustice  and  ingrati- 
tude which  she  frequently  manifested  towards  many  of  her 
best  citizens,  her  most  illustrious  patriots  and  philosophers. 
Some  of  the  most  distinguished  victims  of  this  injustice  were 
Mi/ii'ades,  Arisfi'des,  Themis' tod  es^  Ci'mon,  Fho'cion,  and 
Soc'rates.  These  v/ere  all  sentenced  to  death  or  banishment ; 
yet,  not  long  after  ♦heir  condemnation,  the  Athenians,  with 
their  characteristic  fickleness  and  inconsistency,  did  ample 
justice  to  their  merit,  and  punished  their  accusers. 

19.  In  no  period  of  Grecian  history  docs  there  appear  to 
have  existed  that  virluous  age  which  many  are  accustomed  to 
describe,  more  in  the  spirit  of  poetical  romance,  than  of  histor- 
ical truth.  The  standard  both  of  public  and  private  morality, 
in  all  the  states,  and  at  all  times,  was  low  ;  and  the  most  illus- 
trious men  that  figure  in  the  history  of  Greece  were  little 
scrupulous  in  the  choice  of  means  for  effecting  their  public  ob- 
jects, but  seemed  to  think  it  right  to  secure  the  ascendency  of 
their  own  country,  to  humble  a  rival  state,  or  to  carry  on  de- 
signs of  conquest,  at  any  expense  of  blood  or  of  suffering. 

20.  "It  is  evident,"  says  Mitford,  "from  the  writings  of 
Xenophon  and  Plato,  that,  in  their  age,  the  boundaries  of 
right  and  wrong,  justice  and  injustice,  honesty  and  dishonesty, 
were  little  determined  by  any  generally  received  ])rinciples.  — 
That  might  gave  right,  especially  in  public  transactions,  was  a 
t(!net  generally  avowed." 

21.  The  earlier  times  were  characterized  by  violence  and 
rapine.  In  a  later  age,  that  preceding  the  Christian  era,  the 
philosophy  of  Epicu'nis  had  gained  the  ascendency,  and  the 
subtilties  of  scepticism,  and  corruption  of  manners,  had  reached 
a  heirrht  of  extravagance  which  it  seemed  difficult  to  exceed. 
The  historv  of  the  world  had  demonstrated   tiie  necessity  of 


44  (.'in;i:cii. 

BOine  hotter  guide  to  man  tlian  human  wisdom  had  been  able 
to  afford  him,  either  as  a  member  ot"  society,  or  as  a  being 
formed  for  immortaUty- 


SECTION   XI. 

Grecian   Antiquities. 
Grecian  Sects  of  Philosopht/. 

Most  of  the  ancient  sects  of  philosophy  had  their  origm 
among  the  Greeks.  The  most  flourishing  period  of  Grecian 
literature  was  in  the  4lh  and  5th  centuries  B.  0. 

The  Ionic  sect,  the  most  ancient  school  of  philosophy  among 
the  Greeks,  was  founded  by  T/ia'les,  who  was  distinguished  for 
his  knowledge  of  geometry  and  astronomy. 

The  Italian  or  Pythagore'an  sect  was  founded  by  Pytlwg'- 
eras,  who  taught  the  transmigration  of  souls  through  diiferent 
bodies. 

The  Socratic  school  was  founded  by  S.^c'rates,  who  was  es- 
teemed the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  of  the  Greeks,  and  the 
father  of  moral  philosophy. 

The  Cynics,  a  sect  founded  by  Antis'thenes,  and  supported 
by  Diog'enes,  condemned  knowledge  as  useless,  renounced 
social  enjoyments  and  the  conveniences  of  life,  and  indulged 
themselves  in  scurrility  and  invective. 

The  Academic  sect  was  founded  by  Plato,  a  philosopher 
who  has  had  an  extensive  empire  over  the  minds  of  men, 
owing  to  the  sublimity  of  his  doctrines,  and  the  eloquence  with 
which  he  has  propounded  them.  He  gave  his  lectures  in  the 
groves  of  Acade'mus,  near  Athens. 

The  Peripatet'ic  sect  was  founded  by  Ar'istotle,  who  estab 
lished  his  school  in  the  Lyceum  at  Athens.  His  philosophy 
predominated  over  the  minds  of  men  during  16  centuries. 

The  Sceptical  sect  was  founded  by  Pyrrho,  who  inculcated 
vmiversal  doubt  as  the  only  true  wisdom. 

The  Stoic  sect  was  founded  by  Zeno.  The  Stoics  incul- 
cated fortitude  of  mind,  denied  that  pain  is  an  evil,  and  en- 
deavored to  raise  themselves  above  all  the  passions  and  feel- 
ings of  humanity. 

The  Epiczire'ans,  named  from  their  founder,  Epicu'i-us,  held 
that  man's  supreme  happiness  consists  in  pleasure. 

"  The  Greek  philosophy,"  says  Tytler,  "  affords  little  more 
than  a   picture   of  the  imbecility  and  caprice  of  the   human 


GREECE.  45 

mind.  Its  teachers,  instead  of  experiment  and  observation, 
satisfied  themselves  with  constiiicting  theories ;  and  these, 
wanting  fact  for  their  basis,  have  only  served  to  perplex  the 
understanding,  and  retard  equally  the  advancement  of  sound 
morality  and  the  progress  of  useful  knowledge." 

Philosophers  mid  Ports. 

The  names  of  the  princi[)al  (rreek  philosophers,  poets,  &c., 
may  be  seen  in  the  Chronological  Table  of  Grecian  Literature. 

The  most  illustrious  of  the  Greek  poets  are  Horner,  the 
great  epic  poet ;  Pindar.,  a  lyric  poet ;  vEs'chijhis,  Eurip'ides^ 
Soph'ocles,  Aristoph'anes,  and  Menan'der,  dramatic  poets. — 
The  poets  Homer  and  He'siod  are  supposed  to  have  flourished 
9  or  10  centuries  B.  C. 

Artists  and  Historiajis. 

Phid'ias  and  Praxit'clcs  were  famous  statuaries  ;  Polyg'notus, 
Parrha'sius,  Zciixis,  and  Aj'clles,  eminent  painters ;  Herod'' 
otus,  Thucyd'ides,  Xen'opho7i,  Polt/b'ius,  Diodo'r'iis  Sic'ulus, 
and  Dionysius  of  Ilalicarnassus,  distinguished  historians. 

The  Seven  Wise  Men. 

The  seven  wise  men  of  Greece  were  Tha'les,  of  Mile'tus ; 
Solon,  of  Athens ;  Bias,  of  Prie'ne  ;  Chilo,  of  Lacedse'mon  ; 
Pit'tacus,  of  Mityle'ne  ;  Cleohi'lus,  of  Lindos  ;  and  Periander, 
of  Cor'inth.  —  Instead  of  Perian'der,  some  enumerate  My'son^ 
and  others  Anachar'sis. 

The  Council  of  the  Amphictyons. 

This  council  is  supposed  to  have  been  instituted  by  Am- 
phic'tyon,  the  son  of  Deuca'lion,  king  of  Thes'saly,  at  an  early 
period  of  the  history  of  Greece.  It  was  composed  of  deputies 
from  the  different  states,  and  resembled  the  diet  of  the  German 
empire.  At  its  first  institution,  it  is  said  to  have  consisted  of 
12  deputies,  from  12  different  cities  or  states ;  but  the  number 
of  deputies  was  afterwards  increased  to  24  and  to  30.  They 
usually  met  twice  a  year ;  .in  the  spring  at  Delphi,  and  in  the 
autumn  at  Thfrmop'ylct. 

The  objects  of  this  assembly  were  to  unite  in  strict  amity  the 
states  which  were  represented  ;  to  consult  for  their  mutual 
welfare  and  defence  ;  to  decide  differences  between  cities;  to 
try  offences  against  the  laws  of  nations  ;  and  also  to  protect 
the  oracle  of  Delphi. 


46  GREECE. 


Oracles. 


The  Greeks  were  in  the  habit  of  consulting  oracles  on  all 
important  occasions,  —  as  when  they  were  about  to  declare 
war,  to  conclude  a  peace,  to  institute  a  new  form  of  govern- 
ment, or  to  enact  laws.  The  most  celebrated  oracles  were 
those  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  and  Delos,  the  oracle  of  Jupher  at 
Dodo'na,  and  that  of  Tropho'nius  at  Lehade'a. 

Puhlic  Gaines. 

There  were  four  public  and  solemn  games  in  Greece,  —  the 
Olympic,  Pythian,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian. 

The  exercises  practised  at  these  games  were  leaping,  run- 
ning, throwing,  boxing,  and  wrestling ;  also  horse  and  chariot 
races,  and  contests  between  poets,  orators,  musicians,  philoso- 
phers, and  artists  of  different  descriptions. 

Running  was  much  esteemed  among  the  ancient  Greeks. 
Leaping  weis  sometimes  performed  with  weights  in  the  hands, 
or  upon  the  head  or  shoulders.  In  boxing,  the  combatants 
held  in  their  hands  balls  of  stone  or  lead,  while  their  arms 
were  guarded  with  thongs  of  leather. 

The  Olympic  games,  which  were  instituted  by  Hercules, 
in  honor  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  Avere  celebrated  at  the  town  of 
Olympia,  in  the  first  month  of  every  fifth  year,  and  lasted  five 
days.  They  drew  together  an  immense  concourse  from  all 
parts  of  Greece,  and  numbers  even  from  foreign  countries. 
No  one  was  permitted  to  contend  unless  he  had  prepared  him- 
self, by  continual  exercises,  during  ten  months,  in  the  public 
gymnasium  at  Elis. 

The  contenders  were  obliged  to  take  an  oath  that  they  would 
use  no  unlawful  means  to  obtain  the  reward.  The  prize  be- 
stowed on  the  victor  was  a  crown  of  olive ;  yet  trifling  as  was 
this  reward,  it  was  considered  as  the  highest  honor,  and  was 
sought  for  with  the  utmost  eagerness.  The  victor  was  greeted 
with  loud  acclamations,  and  his  return  home  was  in  the  style 
of  a  warlike  conqueror. 

The  Greeks  computed  their  time  by  the  celebrations  of 
these  games,  the  space  intervening  between  one  celebration 
and  another  being  called  an  Olympiad. 

The  Pythian  games  were  celebrated  every  5th  year,  in  the 
second  year  of  every  Olympiad,  near  Delphi,  in  honor  of 
A-poIlo.     The  victors  were  crowned  with  laurel. 


GREECE.  41 

The  Ne'mean  games  were  celebrated  at  the  town  of  Ne'mea, 
;vcry  third  year.     The  victoi*s  were  crowned  with  parsley. 

The  Isth'mian  games  were  so  called  from  their  being  cele 
bratcd  on  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  They  were  instituted  in 
honor  of  Noptunc  ;  observed  every  JJd  or  5th  year ;  and  held 
so  sacred  and  inviolable,  that  a  public  calamity  could  not  pre- 
vent their  celebration.  The  victors  were  rewarded  with  u 
garland  of  pine  leaves. 

Goi'ernment  of  Athens. 

Cla.'iscs  of  inhabilants.  The  inhabitants  of  Athens  were 
divided  into  liuce  classes ;  citizens  or  freemen,  foreigners  or 
sojourners,  and  slaves. 

The  citizens  were  the  privileged  class,  and  had  the  govern- 
ment exclusively  in  their  hands.  They  were  divided  into  10 
tribes,  but  they  were  not  limited  to  the  city,  a  part  of  them 
residing  in  the  small  boroughs  of  Attica.  The  privilege  of 
citizenship  was  highly  esteemed,  and  was  obtained  with  much 
difficulty. 

The  sojourners  were  permitted  to  exercise  trades  in  the  city, 
but  had  no  vote  in  the  assembly,  nor  could  they  be  raised  to 
any  office. 

The  slaves  or  servants  were  the  most  numerous  portion  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Attica.  They  were  in  a  state  of  hopeless 
servitude,  wholly  at  the  disposal  of  their  jiiasters,  and  perform- 
ed the  labor  in  the  fields,  the  mines,  and  in  private  houses. 

Archons  and  other  magistrates.  The  supreme  executive 
power  was  vested  in  nine  archons,  elected  annually.  They 
wore  garlands  of  myrtle,  and  were  protected  from  violence 
and  insult. 

The  first,  or  chief  of  the  nine,  was  called  the  archon,  by  way 
of  eminence.  He  had  the  care  of  widows  and  minors  dirough- 
out  Attica,  and  determined  all  causes  respecting  wuls.  lie 
was  punished  with  death,  if  convicted  of  drunkenness  while 
in  office. 

The  second  archon,  styled  Bas'ilctis,  had  the  supeiintend- 
ence  of  religious  ceremonies,  and  decided  all  disputes  among 
priests. 

The  third  archon,  called  Pol'emarch,  had  originally  the 
superintendence  of  military  affairs;  but  his  jurisdiction  \Va3 
afterwards  confined  to  strangers  and  sojourners,  and  to  the 
appointment  of  games  in  honor  of  those  who  fell  in  war,  and 
to  the  care  of  the  education  of  llieir  children. 


48  GREECL. 

The  six  other  archons  were  called  Thesmolh'elcB.  They 
presided  at  the  election  of  inferior  magistrates,  ratified  public 
contracts  or  leagues,  received  complaints  against  persons 
guilty  of  various  offences,  and  decided  disputes  respecting 
trade  and  commerce. 

The  Athenian  magistrates  were  divided  into  three  sorts ; 
1st,  the  Chirotoue'tl,  who  were  chosen  by  the  people,  in  a 
lawful  assembly,  in  which  they  voted  by  holding  up  their 
hands;  2d,  the  Clero'ti,  who,  after  having  been  approved  by 
the  people,  were  promoted  by  lots  drawn  in  the  temple  of  The- 
seus ;  3d,  the  JEi-'eii^  who  were  cxiraordinary  officers  appointed 
by  particular  tribes  to  take  care  of  any  business. 

The  poorer  citizens  were  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  govern- 
ment, and  might  aspire  to  preferments ;  yet  the  higher  offices 
were  generally  bestowed  upon  the  most  distinguished  persons. 
The  candidates  for  office  were  obliged  to  give  an  account  of 
their  past  life  in  the  public  forum.  While  in  office,  the  magis- 
trates were  liable  to  trial  for  an  accusation  of  any  failure  in 
the  discharge  of  their  duties ;  and,  after  their  office  had  ex- 
pired, they  were  obliged  to  give  an  account  of  their  manage- 
ment, and  during  30  days  every  man  was  allowed  to  bring 
forward  his  complaint. 

Assemblies.  The  assemblies  of  the  people  were  composed 
of  all  the  citizens  or  freemen  of  Athens  ;  all  foreigners,  slaves, 
women,  children,  and  such  persons  as  had  received  an  infa- 
mous punishment,  being  excluded.  They  were  held  four  times 
in  35  days ;  the  place  of  meeting  was  the  forum,  the  pnyx,  or 
the  temple  of  Bacchus. 

No  business  could  be  transacted  in  an  assembly  containing 
less  than  6,000  citizens.  When  the  question  under  considera- 
tion was  sufficiently  discussed,  the  president  called  for  a  decis- 
ion, which  was  manifested  by  show  of  hands. 

Senate.  The  senate,  which  was  elected  annually,  originally 
consisted  of  400,  but  was  afterwards  increased  to  500.  It  was 
the  business  of  this  body  to  examine,  with  care,  all  matters,  be- 
fore they  were  proposed  to  the  people,  and  to  see  that  nothing 
was  submitted  to  them  which  was  contrary  to  the  public  good. 
The  senate  also  examined  the  accounts  of  the  magistrates, 
took  care  of  the  fleet,  and  punished  such  ofTences  as  were  not 
forbidden  by  any  written  law. 

Areopagus.  The  name  of  this  court,  which  signifies  Mars'* 
Hill,  was  taken  from  the  i)lace  where  it  was  held.     This  was 


GREECE.  49 

tho  most  distinguished  and  venerable  court  of  justice  in  an- 
cient times,  and  took  cognizance  of  crimes,  abuses,  and  inno- 
vations, either  in  religion  or  government.  The  Areop'agites 
were  guardians  of  education  and  manners,  and  inspected  the 
laws.  To  laugh  in  their  assembly  was  an  unpardonable  act 
of  levity. 

Ostracism.  One  of  the  most  iniquitous  and  absurd  peculiar- 
ities in  the  government  of  Athens,  and  some  other  of  the  Gro- 
cian  states,  was  the  practice  of  the  os'lracism,  a  ballot  of  all 
the  citizens,  in  which  each  wrote  down  the  name  of  the  indi- 
vidual most  offensive  to  him  ;  and  he  who  was  marked  out  by 
the  greatest  number  of  votes,  was  banished  from  his  country 
for  5,  10,  or  20  years.  It  was  not  necessary  that  any  crime 
should  be  alleged,  and  the  property  and  honor  of  the  exile 
remained  unhurt. 

This  barbarous  institution  was  often  subservient  to  the  worst 
purposes,  and  stained  the  character  of  the  Athenians  with  many 
flagrant  instances  of  injustice  and  ingratitude. 

Government  of  Sparta. 

Classes  of  inhabitants.  The  inhabitants  of  Sparta  consist- 
ed of  citizens,  and  slaves  or  Helots. 

The  citizens  were  divided  into  two  classes,  the  Homoii,  and 
the  Hypomiones ;  the  former  alone  could  be  elected  to  office  ; 
the  latter,  consisting  of  the  poorer  citizens,  were  only  allowed 
to  vote  at  the  elections. 

The  slaves  or  Helots  were  much  more  numerous  than  the 
freemen.  They  performed  all  the  servile  labor  in  the  field 
and  in  the  house ;  also  served  as  sailors  in  the  fleet,  and  were 
attached  to  the  army,  every  soldier  being  attended  by  one  or 
more. 

Kings.  The  two  chief  magistrates  of  the  republic  of  Spar- 
ta were  styled  Icings  ;  but  their  power  was  very  limited.  They 
presided  in  the  senate,  and  were  high  priests  of  the  nation. 
One  of  them  commanded  the  army,  while  the  other  usually 
remained  at  home  to  administer  justice.  They  appeared  in 
public  places  without  any  retinue,  and  could  scarcely  be  dis- 
tinguished from  other  citizens. 

Senate.    The  senate  of  Sparta  consisted  of  the  two  kings  and 

28  elective  members,  who  were  above  60  years  of  age,  and 

retained  their  dignity  till  death.     It  constituted  the  supreme 

council  of  the  republic,  and  considered  all  questions  relating 

5 


50  GREECE. 

to  peace  and  war,  and  other  important  affairs  of  state.  None 
were  admitted  into  this  august  assembly  except  such  as  had 
been  distinguished  from  youth  for  prudence  and  virtue. 

Ephori.  The  Eph'ori  were  five  Spartan  magistrates,  elect- 
ed annually  by  the  people,  and  might  be  taken  from  every 
rank  of  citizens.  It  was  their  duty  to  inspect  the  education 
of  youth,  and  the  administration  of  justice. 

Assemblies.  Two  public  assemblies  met  at  Sparta ;  one, 
called  the  general  assembly,  attended  by  all  the  freemen  of 
Laconia ;  the  other,  called  the  lesser  assembly,  composed  of 
the  freemen  of  the  metropolis  who  were  above  30  years  of 
age.  The  general  assembly  was  convened  when  questions 
relating  to  peace  or  war,  or  other  matters  of  general  concern, 
were  to  be  determined.  The  lesser  assembly  was  held  at  every 
full  moon,  and  regulated  the  succession  of  the  crown,  and  dis* 
cussed  matters  relating  to  government  and  religion. 


GRECIAN  HISTORY.  51 


B.  c.  Chronological  Table  ok  Grecian  Historv. 

800' 


8th 
700 

llh 

600 

C>tli 

500 

5  th 
400 

ith 

300 

3d 

200 

2d 


)4  Solon  foniis  a  new  code  of  laws  for  Alliens. 
(i'2   Conicdij  and  Tragedy  first  exliibited  in  Alliens. 
60  PuiistrulJUi  tyrant  of  Athens;  a  splendid  rule. 
tiO   Temples  first  built  in  Greece. 

Literature  encouraged :  Homer's  poems  collected  into  a  vol- 
ume. 

24  Hippias  and  Hipparchus,  the  Pisistratida:,  govern  Athens. 
14  Hipparchus  8\a\n  ;  and  (510)  Hippias  expetled. 


7(j  First  Olijmj)iad  begins. 

56   Chcrops,  the  first  Decennial  ^Irchon  in  Athens. 

43  First  Mcssenian  IVar ;  —  ends  724,  and  Ithoine  taken. 


85  Hccond  Messeiiian  War  ;  —  ends  671,  the  Messenians  subdued. 
n\   Crcon,  the  first  ^Innual  .Prelum  in  Athens. 
24   Draco  forms  iiis  bloody  code  of  laws  for  Athens. 
Solar  Eclipaes  first  calculated  by  Tliales. 


90  Persian  War.  —  Victory  gained  by  Miltiades  at  Marathon. 

80  Conflict  of  Leonidas  at  Thermopyla. 

80  Victory  gained  by  Themistocles  at  Salamis. 

79  Victories  of  the  Greeks  at  Platma  {Arislidcs)  and  Mycale. 

70  Victory  gained  by  Ciiiion  on  the  Eurymedon. 

64  Third  Mcssenian  War  begins. 

45  Herodotus  reads  his  history  at  the  Olympic  games. 

31  Pelotonnesian  War  begins.  —  430.    Plague  ai  Aihcns. 

5  Lysander  defeats  the  Athenians  at  JEgos  Potamos. 

3  The  Thirty  Tyrants  expelled.  —  Philosophy  and  the  Arts. 
Xenophon's  Retreat  with  the  10,000.     Death  of  Socrates. 


94  Agesilaus  defeats  the  Athenians,  Thebans,  &c.,  at  Coronea. 

87  Peace  of  Anlalcidas  between  the  Spartans  and  Persians. 

71  Epaminondas  of  Thebes  defeats  the  Spartans  at  Leiictra. 

63  Epaminondas  defeats  the  Spartans  at  Mantinea. 

56  First  Sacred  War.  —  348.    Philip  takes  Olynthus. 

39  Second  Sacred  War.  —  338.    Philip's  victory  at  Charonea. 

34  Alexander  invades  Persia  ;  his  victory  on  the  Granicus. 

33  Battle  of  Issus.  —  332.     Tyre  taken,  and  Egypt  conquered. 

30  Battle  of  .4rtc/tf,-  Persia  conquered. — 224.    Mcxander  dies. 

1  Battle  of  Ipsus;  Alexander's  empire  divided. 


i^S  Athens  taken  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 
81  The  Achman  League  begins  ;  also  the  .Italian  League. 
80  Greece  ravaged  by  the  Gauls  under  Brennus. 
73  Pyrrhus,  having  ravaged  Greece,  is  killed  at  Argos. 
64  The  Arundelian  Marbles  composed. 
25  Cleomencs  reforms  the  government  of  Sparta. 
20  War  between  the  Achwans,  under  Aratus,  and  the  yEtolians. 
6  The  Acha:ans,  under  Philopamen,  defeat  the  .(IDtolians. 


97  Battle  of  Cynocephale ;  the  Macedonians  defeated  by  the  Ra- 
mans. 

68  Battle  of  Pydna;  the  Macedonians  defeated  by  the  Romans, 
and  Macedonia  reduced  to  a  Roman  province. 

47  The  Achmans  defeated  by  the  Romans  under  Metellus. 

46  Corinth  taken  by  the  Romans  under  Mummius,  and  Greece 
reduced  to  a  Roman  province  under  the  name  of.lchaia. 


To  ascertain  the  dale  of  any  event  mentioned  in  this  Table, 
add  the  figures  connected  with  the  event  to  the  century  heloio 
Thus,  the  first  Olympiad  begins  776  B.  C. 


GRECIAN  HISTORY. 


Chronological   Table    of    Grecian    Literature. 

Slate3Mienaiid 

Philosophers. 

Poets  and 

Historians  and  Contemporary  | 

B.  c. 

700 

Warriors. 

Artists.* 

Orators. 

bovereigns. 

Arislnmenes 

TyrtEEus 

Numa 

7th 
600 

Draco 

Archilochus 

.Josiah 

Terixmder 

Cyaxares 

Periander 

Chile,  Bias 

AlCtBUS 

Nebuchad- 

Solon 

Pittacus 

Sappho 

nezzar 

Zaleucus 

Cleobulus 

TEsop,  Fab. 

Serv.  Tallius 

Gth 

Pisistratua 

TllALES 

Epimenides 

Croesus 

Hippies 

Anacharsis 

Stesichorus 

Cyrus 

Hipparchu3 

Aiiaximander 

Mimnormus 

Tarquin,  Pr. 

HarmoJius 

Xenophanes 

Thespis 

Cambyses 

500 

Aristogilon 

Anaximenes 

Susarion 

Milliailes 

Pytiiaooras 

Anacreon 

Darius 

Leonidaa 

Heraditud 

Si-monides 

Xerxes 

Arislidos 

Melissiis 

.Tischvlus 

Pausaniaa 

Zsno 

Pindar 

Hiero 

hth 

Themislocles 

Empedoclcs 

Phidias,  Art. 

-Arta-xerxes  L. 

Cimon 

Anaxa^oras 

Cratiiius 

Pericles 

Diagoras 

Eupolis 

Dionysius 

Nicias 

Melon 

Polygnotus  A. 

Alcibiades 

Protagoras 

Parrhasius  A. 

Critias 

Cebes 

Euripides 

Herodotus 

400 

Lysander 

SOCRATES 

Sophocles 

Georgias,  Or. 

Thraaybulua 

Euclid,  Meg. 

Aristophanes 

Thucydides 

Conon 

Phsedo 

Zeuxia,  Art. 

Lysias,  Or. 

Pelopidas 

Antisthenea 

Euphranor, 

Ctesias 

Epaminondaa 

Arislippus 

Art. 

Xenophon 

Arlaxerxes 

Agesilaus 

Hippocrates 

Tiniulheus 

Isocrates,  Or. 

Philip 

Ath 

Timoleon 

Democritua 

Lysippus,  A. 

Theoporapus 

Alexander 

Parmenio 

Plato 

Apelles,  Art. 

Hyperides,  0. 

Darius  Cod. 

Perdiccaa 

Diogenes 

Demosthe- 

Phocion 

Aristotle 

nes,  Or. 

Polysperchon 

Pyrrho 

j5i^chines, 

Antigonus 

Euclid,  Alex. 

Praxiteles,  A. 

Or. 

800 

Demetrius 

Theophrastus 

Menander 

Lysimachus 

Antigonus  G. 

Epicurus 

Theocritus 

Cassander 

2d 

Antigonus  D. 

Zeno,  Sloic 

Lycophroa 

Timasus 

Seleucus  I. 

Cleomenes 

ApoUonius 

Aratus 

Manetho 

Ptolemy  I. 

Aratus 

Arcesilaus 

Callimachus 

Pyrrhus 

Archimedes 

Apollonius 

Ptolemy  II. 

200 

Eratosthenes 

Antiochus  G. 

2d 

Philopoeinen 

Heraclides 

Bion 

Eumenes 

Lycortas 

Carneades 

Moschus 

Poly  bi  us 

Antiochus  E. 

100 

1st 

0 

\st 

100 
2d 

Hipparchus 

Nicander 

ApoUodorus 

Judas  Mac. 

Diodorus  Sic. 

Milhridates 

Potamo 

.Archias 

Dionysius  H. 

Julius  Caesar. 

Augustus 

Dioscorides 

Strabo,  Geog. 

Vespasian 

Epictetus 

Lucian,  Dial. 

Plutarch,  Bio. 

Trajan 

Galen,  Med. 

Arrian. 

Adrian 

•  The  poets  Homer  and  Hesiod  ate  supposed  lo  have  flourished  9  or  10  centuries  B.  C 


SYRIA,  OR  SYRO-MEDIA.  SS 


SYRIA   UNDER    THE    SELEUCID^. 

1.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Antig'onus,  one 
of  his  generals,  obtained  possession  of  his  principal  dominions 
in  Asia.  But  Seleu'cus,  another  officer  of  Alexander,  and  son 
of  Anli'ochus,  one  of  Philip's  generals,  revolted  against  Antig- 
onus,  and  took  possession  of  Babylon ;  and  by  the  battle  of 
Ipsus,  in  which  Antig'onus  was  defeated  and  slain,  Seleu'cus 
was  confirmed  in  his  authority.  He  founded  the  kingdom  of 
Si/ria,  or  Sijro-Media,  which,  reckoning  from  the  time  of  his 
taking  Babylon  to  the  period  when  Syria  became  a  Roman 
province,  lasted  247  years.  It  was  governed  by  23  kings,  who 
were  styled  the  Seleu'cidcB,  from  the  name  of  the  founder. 

2.  Selcucus  was  a  great  general,  an  able  and  popular  sove- 
reign, and  was  surnamed  Nica'tor  or  Conqueror,  on  account 
of  23  battles  which  he  gained.  He  founded  16  large  cities, 
the  most  famous  of  which  were  An'tioch,  Seleu'cia,  Apame'a, 
and  Laodice'a.  Antioch,  which  became  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  was  a  very  large  and  splendid  city,  styled  "  The 
Queen  of  the  East,"  and  also  "  The  Eye  of  the  Christian 
Church."  The  disciples  of  Christ  were  here  first  called  Chris- 
tians ;  and  this  city,  at  an  early  period,  became  the  seat  of  a 
Christian  patriarch. 

3.  Selcucus,  having  made  war  against  Lysiin'aclius,  king  of 
Thrace,  defeated  and  slew  him  in  battle,  but  was  himself  soon 
after  assassinated  by  Ptolemy  Cerau'nus,  who  was  afterwards 
king  of  Macedon.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Anti'ochus 
Soter,  during  whose  reign  the  Gauls  made  an  irruption  into 
Asia  Minor,  and  founded  the  state  of  Galatia. 

4.  The  reigns  of  his  successors,  Anti'ochus  Theos  and 
Seleu'cus  Calliui'cus,  were  disturbed  by  conspiracies  and  by 
wars,  particularly  with  the  Parthians  and  Bactrians,  who  re- 
volted from  the  government. 

5.  One  of  the  most  distinguished  of  this  race  of  sovereigns 
was  Anti'ochus  the  Great,  who  had  a  long  reign  of  36  years, 
and  was  as  much  distinguished  for  his  faults  and  misfortunes, 
as  for  his  great  qualities  and  successes.  His  reign  was  a 
continued  warfare,  presenting  alternately  victories  and  defeats. 
He  subdued  several  governors  of  different  provinces,  who  re- 
volted from  him.  In  a  war  with  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  after 
having  gained  many  advantages,  he  lost  a  great  battle  at 
Raphia.  He  carried  his  victorious  arms  into  Media,  Parthia, 
Hyrcania,  and  India. 

6.  Anti'ochus  was  visited  by  Han'nihal,  the  great  Cartha- 

5* 


M 


SYRIA,  OR  SYRO-MEDIA. 


ginian  general,  who  endeavored  to  persuade  him  lo  make  war 
upon  the  Romans  by  invading  Italy.  Instead  of  this,  how- 
ever, he  invaded  Greece,  but  was  defeated  by  the  Romans, 
and  compelled  to  retire  into  Asia.  Being  pursued  by  a  Romai. 
army,  commanded  by  Scijjio  Asiat'icus,  lie  was  entirely  de- 
feated in  a  great  battle,  on  the  plains  of  Magne'sia,  and  com- 
pelled to  accept  of  peace  on  humiliating  terms.  He  was  after- 
wards put  to  death  by  his  own  officers. 

7.  The  next  two  kings  were  Seleu'cus  PJiilop'ator  anJ 
Anti'ochus  Epiph'anes,  sons  of  Antiochus*  the  Great.  The 
latter  profaned  and  plundered  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  and 
attempted  to  abolish  the  Jewish  worship.  But  the  Jews,  under 
Judas  Maccabce'us,  revolted,  and  defeated  the  army  of  Anti- 
ochus,  who  immediately  engaged  in  a  design  to  exterminate 
the  whole  nation  ;  but  before  he  had  effected  anything,  he 
died  in  a  sudden  and  signal  manner. 

8.  The  succeeding  reigns  of  the  Seleu'cidce  exhibit  a  series 
of  assassinations,  conspiracies,  and  contests,  till  Syria  was 
finally  conquered  by  Po^npey,  65  B.  C,  and  made  a  Roman 
province. 


The  Seleucidje,  Kings  of  Syria. 

[The  figures  denote  the  commencemsnt  of  the  reign  of  each.) 


B.C. 

312.  Seleucus  I.  Nicator. 
283.  Antioclius  I.  Soter. 
261.  Amiochus  II.  Theos. 
246.  Seleucus  II.  Callinicus. 
226.  Seleucus  III.  Ceraunus. 
223.  Antioehus  III.  the  Great. 
185.  Seleucus  IV.  Pliilopator. 
175.  Antioclius  IV.  Epiphanes. 
164.  Antioclius  V.  Eupator. 
162.  Demetrius  I.  Soter. 
150.  Alexander  I. 
146.  Demetrius  II.  Nicator. 


B.C. 

144.  Antioehus  VI. 
143.  Tryphon. 
139.  Antioehus  VII. 
127.  Alexander  II. 
123.  Antioehus  VIII. 
112.  Antioehus  IX. 

95.  Antioehus  X. 

94.  Antioehus  XI. 

87.  Antioehus  XII. 

83.  Tigranes. 

69.  Antioehus  XIII.  Asiaticua  d» 
posed  by  Pompey^  G5  B.  C 


EGYPT  UNDER  THE  PTOLEMIES. 


EGYPT  UNDER   THE   PTOLEMIES. 

1.  Of  all  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Egypt  en- 
joyed the  earliest  and  most  lasting  prosperity.  The  dynasty 
of  the  Ptol'e?nies,  which,  reckoning  from  the  death  of  AleX' 
ander  to  that  of  Chojm'tra.,  lasted  293  years,  forms  a  conspic- 
uous period  in  the  history  of  that  country. 

2.  PtnVemy  Lagus,  surnamed  also  Soler,  was  the  reputed 
son  of  Philip,  king  of  Maccdon,  hy  a  concubine,  and  half- 
brother  of  Alexander  the  Great.  At  the  time  of  Alexander's 
death,  he  was  governor  of  Egypt ,  and  after  the  division  of  the 
empire  into  four  monarchies,  he  became  king  of  the  country, 
and  had  a  prosperous  reign  of  39  years.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  abilities,  eminent  as  a  general  and  a  statesman,  and  was 
also  a  man  of  learning,  and  a  great  patron  of  literature. 

3.  He  founded  the  famous  library  of  Alexandria,  establish- 
ed a  museum,  or  academy,  which  became  the  abode  of  learned 
men,  and  erected  the  celebi'atcd  watch-tower  of  Pharos,  which 
was  sometimes  reckoned  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 
He  built  a  number  of  new  cities,  and  caused  decayed  ones  to 
emerge  from  their  ruins,  rendered  the  canals  again  navigable, 
encouraged  commerce  and  agriculture,  restored  prosperity  to 
Egypt,  and  conquered  Syria. 

4.  Ptolemy  Soter  was  succeeded  by  his  second  son  PloVe- 
my  Philadd'phus,  who  followed,  in  a  great  measure,  the  steps 
of  his  father,  and  had  a  prosperous  and  splendid  reign.  He 
founded  cities,  erected  magnificent  edifices,  finished  the  canal 
from  Suez  to  the  Nile,  and  promoted  navigation  and  commerce. 
His  court  surpassed  all  others  of  the  age  as  a  seat  of  learning, 
politeness,  and  the  arts,  and  was  illustrated  by  Theoc'ritus,  and 
other  men  of  genius.  During  his  reign,  the  celebrated  version 
of  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek,  called  the  Septuagint,  was 
made  for  the  use  of  the  Jews,  many  of  whom  were,  at  this 
time,  settled  in  Alexandria. 

5.  Ptolemy  Erer'getes,  the  son  and  successor  of  the  pre- 
ceding monarch,  was  a  warlike  and  prosperous  prince,  and 
likewise  a  patron  of  learning.  His  reign  commenced  with  a 
severe  though  successful  war  with  Anti'ochus,  king  of  Syria. 
While  absent  on  one  of  his  expeditions,  his  queen  Bereni'ce, 
alarmed  for  his  safely,  made  a  vow,  that,  if  he  were  restored 
to  her  wishes,  she  would  consecrate  her  hair  in  the  temple  of 
Venus. 

6.  The  hair  was  regarded  as  the  chief  ornament  of  Egyp- 
tian ladies;  that  of  l-5ereni'co  was  particularly  beautiful,  and 


56  EGYPT  UNDER  THE  PTOLEMIES- 

the  sacrifice  acquired  additional  value,  as  it  was  a  monument 
of  her  afiection  for  her  husband.  By  some  accident,  the  con- 
secrated locks  were  soon  lost,  and  the  keepers  were  rescued 
from  punishment  by  the  address  of  the  astronomer  Conon,  who 
aflirmed  that  Bereni'ce's  hnir  had  been  translated  to  the  firma- 
ment, and  formed  a  constellation  in  the  heavens. 

7.  Ptolemy  Ever'getes  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Piolemy 
Philop'a/.nr,  whose  character  was  cruel  and  sanguinary,  and 
whose  reign  was  distinguished  for  an  unrelenting  persecution 
of  the  Jews.  When  he  was  at  Jerusalem,  he  attempted  to 
penetrate  by  force  into  the  most  holy  place  of  the  Jewish  tem- 
ple, into  which  none  but  the  high  priest,  and  he  only  once  a 
year,  was  permitted  to  enter.  Being  forcibly  prevented  from 
committing  this  sacrilege,  he  returned  to  Egypt,  frantic  with 
rage,  and  resolved  to  wreak  his  vengeance  on  the  Jewish 
people,  who  had  enjoyed  many  indulgences  under  his  pi*ede- 
ccssors. 

8.  He  published  a  decree  requiring  all  the  Jews  within  his 
dominions  to  abjure  their  religion,  and  worship  the  gods  of 
Egypt ;  but  only  about  900  were  so  base  as  to  apostatize.  He 
then  commanded  all  the  Jews  in  Alexandria  to  assemble  in 
the  Hip'podrome,  or  place  of  public  diversion,  where  he  col- 
lected 500  elephants  for  the  destruction  of  this  devoted  people. 
But  the  enraged  animals  rushed  upon  the  crowd  of  spectators, 
and  crushed  more  of  them  to  death  than  of  the  Jews ;  yet 
about  40,000  of  the  latter  are  said  to  have  been  slain  in  the 
city. 

9.  The  reigns  of  the  first  three  Ptolemies,  which  comprised 
about  a  century,  formed  far  the  most  prosperous  part  of  the 
dynasty.  Most  of  the  other  reigns  were  unhappy,  abounding 
in  crimes  and  calamities. 

10.  The  Egyptian  kings  of  the  name  of  Ptolemy  were  most 
of  them  distinguished  by  a  surname,  by  which  they  were  in 
some  manner  characterized  :  1st,  PloJemy  Soter,  or  Savior, 
so  named  by  the  Rhodians,  in  gratitude  for  the  protection 
which  he  afforded  them  ;  2d,  Ptolemy  Philadel'phus,  or  Lover 
of  his  Brother,  so  called,  in  derision,  because  he  caused  his 
two  brothers  to  be  put  to  death  ;  3d,  Ptoleiny  Ever'getes,  or 
Benefactor,  so  styled  because  he  restored  to  Egypt  the  idols 
which  had  been  carried  away  by  Camby'ses ;  4th,  Ptolemy 
Philop'ator,  or  Lover  of  his  Father,  so  named,  in  derision, 
because  he  was  supposed  to  have  put  his  father  to  death  ;  5th, 
Ptolemy  Epiph'anes,  or  Blustrious,  so  styled,  though  his  reign 
was  weak  and  inglorious  ;  6th,  Ptolemy  Philome'ter,  or  Lover 
of  his  Mother,  so  called,  in  derision,  on  account  of  his  hatred 
of  his  mother  ;  7th,  Ptolemy  Physcon,  or  Big-lellied,  so  named 


EGYPT  UNDER  THE  PTOEEMIES.         57 

from  his  deformity ;  8th,  Ptolemy  Lalh'yrus,  or  Chick-pea,  so 
called  from  an  excrescence  on  his  nose  like  a  pea ;  9th,  Ptol- 
emy Aule'tcs,  or  Flute-player. 

11.  The  last  was  Ptolemy  Dionysius,  who  succeeded  to 
the  throne  at  the  age  of  13  years.  He  had  for  his  queen  his 
sister,  the  celebrated  Cleopa'tra,  who,  having  caused  him  to 
be  murdered,  assumed  the  sole  government.  Her  history  is 
connected  with  that  of  Julius  Cresar  and  Mark  Antony. 
She  finally  caused  herself  to  bo  bitten  by  an  asp,  in  order 
to  avoid  being  led  captive  to  Rome,  to  grace  the  triumph  of 
Octavius.  After  her  death,  Egypt  became  a  Roman  province, 
30  B.  C. 

12.  The  queens  of  the  Ptolemies  were,  according  to  the 
usage  of  the  country,  for  the  most  part,  their  sisters  ;  and  their 
names  were  Arsin'oe,  Berenice,  and  Cleopa'tra.  Several  of 
them  were  women  distinguished  for  their  talents  and  accom- 
plishments. 


The  Ptolemies,  Kings  of  Egypt. 

(The  figxires  denote  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  each.) 


B.C. 

323.  Ptolemy  Lagus. 
263.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
246.  Ptolemy  Evergetes. 
221.  Ptolemy  Philopator. 
204.  Ptolemy  Epiphanes. 
180.  Ptolemy  Philometer. 
145.  Ptolemy  Physcon. 
117.  Ptolemy  Lathyrus. 


B.C. 

101.  Ptolemy  Alexander. 
81.  Cleopatra. 
80.  Ptolemy  Alexander  II. 
65.  Ptolemy  Auletes. 

Berenice. 
51.  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra. 
48.  Cleopatra  II.,   the  last   sove- 
reign, died  30  B.  C. 


tiS  ROME. 

ROME. 

SECTION  I. 

Roman  History  :  FoundaLion  of  Rome  :  Romulus  :  Numa  : 
TuUus  Hostilius  :  Aliens  Martins  :  Tarquinius  Priscus : 
Servius  Tullius  :  Tarquinius  Superbus,  —  expelled,  and  the. 
regal  governmenl  abolished.  —  From  B.  C.  753  to  509. 

1.  In  the  delineation  of  ancient  liistory,  Rome,  the  last  of 
the  four  great  empires  of  antiquity,  becomes,  after  the  con- 
quest of  Greece,  the  leading  object  of  attention.  It  rose  grad- 
ually from  small  beginnings  to  almost  universal  empire,  sur- 
passing, in  the  extent  of  its  dominions,  in  military  power,  and 
in  the  stability  and  strength  of  its  government,  all  the  great 
sovereignties  that  had  preceded  it.  Its  history  is  fruitful  in 
great  events  and  illustrious  personages  ;  and  from  it  statesmen 
and  philosophers,  of  different  periods  and  countries,  have  drawn 
facts  to  support  their  respective  speculations  and  theories.  The 
history  of  this  empire,  in  its  progress  and  decline,  involves  a 
collateral  account  of  all  other  nations  of  antiquity,  which,  in 
those  periods,  are  particularly  deserving  of  attention. 

2.  During  the  i-eign  of  the  kings,  and  the  early  years  of  the 
republic,  the  Roman  territories  extended  only  about  15  or  20 
miles  around  the  capital ;  and,  for  about  400  years  after  the 
foundation  of  the  city,  the  commonwealth  was  of  very  limited 
extent.  It  then  made  a  rapid  progress  towards  universal  do- 
minion ;  and,  about  50  years  before  the  Christian  era,  it  had 
reduced  to  its  authority  almost  all  the  civilized  world.  This 
universal  empire  continued  till  the  5th  century,  when  it  began 
to  be  broken ;  and,  towards  the  end  of  that  century,  the  West- 
ern Empire  became  extinct.  The  Eastern  Empire  subsisted 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  when  Constantinople 
was  taken  by  the  Turks. 

3.  The  early  history  of  the  Romans,  like  that  of  other  an- 
cient nations,  is  mixed  with  fable,  and  what  has  been  exten- 
sively received  as  an  authentic  account  of  the  early  ages  is  far 
from  being  entitled  to  full  credit.  That  a  considerable  mixture 
of  fiction  must  be  blended  with  the  history  of  the  first  three  or 
four  centuries,  will  appear  more  tlian  probable  when  we  con- 
sider, that  the  earliest  writer  on  Roman  affairs,  whose  works 
are  extant,  flourished  nearly  600  years  after  the  foundation  of 
the  city ;  that  the  Romans  were  not  a  literary  people  till  the 
time  of  the  con(iuest  of  Greece  ;  that,  according  to  their  writ- 


ROME.  59 

ers,  the  records  and  monuments  of  their  early  history  were 
destroyed  when  the  city  was  hurnt  by  the  Gauls,  B.  C.  390 ; 
and  tliat  many  of  the  narratives,  relating  to  the  early  times, 
have  much  more  the  air  of  fable  than  of  credible  history. 

4.  The  length  of  time  comprised  in  the  reigns  of  the  seven 
ivings  of  Rome  is  justly  regarded  as  a  circumstance  calculated 
to  throw  a  veil  of  doubt  over  the  accuracy  of  the  account  given 
of  them.  Of  these  kings,  three  or  four  died  a  violent  death, 
•.md  one  was  expelled  ;  yet  the  average  length  of  their  reigns 
was  about  35  years,  nearly  twice  as  great  as  the  common 
average  length  of  reigns  in  those  kingdoms  whose  histories  are 
most  accurately  known. 

5.  It  may  be  remarked,  with  regard  to  those  Roman  His- 
tories which  treat  copiously  of  the  early  ages,  that  although 
this  portion  of  them  may  contain  much  that  is  true,  yet  the 
evidence  on  which  it  rests  is  too  slender  to  command  implicit 
belief,  especially  with  respect  to  such  narratives  or  statements 
as  are  in  themselves  highly  improbable.  VVe  can  by  no 
means  place  the  account  of  Romulus  and  that  of  Julius  Ccesar 
on  the  same  footing,  with  respect  to  authentic  narrative.  The 
liistory,  indeed,  not  only  of  the  foundation  of  the  monarchy 
and  also  of  the  seven  kings  of  Rome,  but  likewise  of  the  early 
ages  of  the  commonwealth,  contains  obviously  an  intermixture 
of  fable  or  legendary  stories ;  and  the  narrative  may  be  re- 
garded as  often  disguised  by  the  national  vanity  of  the  Romans. 

6.  According  to  the  poets,  Mne'as,  a  Trojan  prince,  who 
escaped  from  the  burning  of  Troy,  after  a  variety  of  adven- 
tures, arrived  in  Italy,  where  he  was  hospitably  received  by 
Lat.Vnus^  king  of  the  Latins,  whose  daughter  he  married,  and 
whom  he  succeeded  in  the  throne.  The  succession  is  said  to 
have  continued  in  his  family  nearly  400  years,  till  the  time  of 
Nu'mitor,  the  15th  king  in  a  direct  line  from  ^ne'as. 

7.  Rhea  Sylvia,  the  daughter  of  Nu'mitor,  was  the  mother 
of  the  twin  brotliers,  Rom'ulus  and  Remus.  The  two  brothers 
fouB.ded  a  city  ;  but,  having  quarrelled  with  each  other  for  the 
sovereignty,  Romulus  slew  Remus,  and  proceeded  with  the 
b  nlding  of  the  city,  which  he  called,  from  his  own  name, 
Rome.  He  was  elected  king,  made  the  new  city  an  asylum 
for  fugitives,  and,  by  stratagem,  at  a  public  festival,  his  sub- 
jects seized  and  carried  off  the  Sabine  women  for  wives. 

8.  Romulus  is  said  to  have  divided  his  people  into  three 
tribes,  each  tribe  consisting  of  10  curicB ;  and  into  two  orders, 
patricians  and  plebe'ians.  He  instituted  a  senate  of  100  mem- 
bers, afterwards  increased  to  200.  These  were  at  first  always 
chosen  from  the  patricians,  but  the  plebeians  afterwards  acquir- 
ed an  equal  right  to  that  dignity.     In  order  to  attach  tlie  two 


^0  ROME. 

classes,  patricians  and  plebeians,  to  each  other,  by  mutual  bonds, 
be  established  the  connection  of  patron  and  client.  Each 
plebeian  had  the  right  of  choosing  a  patrician  for  his  patron 
whose  duty  it  was  to  protect  him  from  oppression,  and  who  re 
ceived  from  his  client  certain  services. 

9.  The  king  was  attended  by  12  lictors,  with  fasces,  and 
had  a  guard  of  300  horsemen,  called  ccVeres  eq'uites,  oi 
knights. 

10.  Numa  Po?n'pil'ius,  a  Sabine,  was  elected  the  second 
king  of  Rome.  He  was  a  native  of  the  town  of  Cures,  whose 
inhabitants  were  styled  Quiri'tes,  a  term  afterwards  applied  to 
Roman  citizens.  Numa  is  represented  as  studious,  virtuous, 
and  pacific  ;  and  the  Romans  are  said  to  have  received  great 
benefits  from  his  government.  He  softened  their  fierce  and 
warlike  dispositions,  by  cherishing  the  arts  of  peace,  obedience 
to  the  laws,  and  respect  for  religion.  He  built  the  temple  of 
Janus,  which  was  open  during  war,  and  closed  during  jjcace. 

11.  Tulliis  HostiVius,  the  third  king  of  Rome,  was  of  a 
warlike  disposition.  His  reign  is  memorable  for  the  romantic 
story  of  the  combat  between  the  Hora'tii  and  Curia'tii,  who 
were  six  in  number,  sons  of  two  sisters,  three  at  a  birth.  The 
Horatii  fought  for  Rome,  and  the  Curiatii  for  Alba.  One  of 
the  Horatii  survived,  all  the  rest  being  slain  ;  and,  by  this  vic- 
tory, the  Romans  became  masters  of  Alba. 

12.  Ancus  Mar'tius,  the  fourth  king,  was  the  grandson  of 
Numa.  He  conquered  the  Latins,  and  built  the  port  of  Os'tia. 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber. 

13.  Tarquin'ius  Prisciis,  or  Tarquin  the  Elder,  the  son  of 
a  merchant  from  Corinth,  was  elected  successor  of  Ancus 
Martins.  He  embellished  the  city  with  works  of  utility  and 
magnificence,  built  the  walls  of  hewn  stone,  erected  the  circus, 
or  hip'po drome,  founded  the  Capitol,  and  constructed  the  cloa'- 
ccB,  those  immense  common  sewers,  or  aqueducts,  which  con- 
veyed into  the  Tiber  the  rubbish  and  superfluous  waters  of  the 
city. 

14.  Ser'vius  Tul'lius,  the  son  of  a  captive  female  slave,  and 
son-in-law  of  Tarquin,  secured  his  election  to  the  vacant  throne 
by  his  own  address  and  the  intrigues  of  his  mother-in-law.  He 
established  the  census,  by  which,  at  the  end  of  every  fifth  year, 
the  number  of  citizens,  their  dwellings,  number  of  children, 
and  amount  of  property,  were  ascertained.  The  census  was 
closed  by  a  lustrum,  or  expiatory  sacrifice  ;  hence  the  period 
of  five  years  was  called  a  lustrum. 

15.  Servius  had  two  daughters,  of  whom  the  elder  was  gen» 
tie  and  submissive,  and  the  younger  haughty  and  ambitious. 
In  order  to  secure  the  throne,  he  married  them  to  the  two  sons 


ROME.  61 

of  Tarquin,  the  laic  king,  whose  names  were  Tarquin  and 
Aru?is,  and  whose  different  dispositions  corresponded  to  those 
of  his  daughters.  But  he  took  care  to  cross  their  tempers  by 
giving  the  elder  to  Tarquin,  who  was  violent,  and  the  younger, 
Tullia,  to  Aruns,  who  was  rnild,  hoping  they  would  correct 
each  other's  defects.  But  Tarquin  and  Tid'Ua  soon  murdered 
their  consorts,  married  each  other,  and  then  caused  Servius  to 
be  assassinated.  Tarquin  usurped  tlie  tiirone,  and  Tullia,  in 
her  eagerness  to  salute  him  as  king,  is  said  to  have  driven  her 
chariot  over  the  dead  body  of  her  father. 

16.  Tarquin^  surnamed  the  Pronely  (in  Latin,  Tarquin'ius 
Super'biis,)  began  his  reign  by  putting  to  death  the  chief  sen- 
ators, and  governing  in  the  most  arbitrary  manner  ;  but,  by 
his  tyranny  and  cruelty,  he  soon  disgusted  all  classes  of  his 
subjects.  Sextus,  his  son,  having  entered  the  house  of  Colla- 
ti'iw.s^  a  nephew  of  Tarquin,  under  the  mask  of  friendship,  did 
violence  to  his  wife  Lucrc'lia,  a  woman  distinguished  for  her 
beauty  and  domestic  virtues.  The  unhappy  Lucretia  imme- 
diately sent  for  her  husband  and  father,  who  came,  bringing 
with  them  Junius  Brutus,  a  grandson  of  Tarquin  the  Elder, 
and  other  friends.  To  them  she  related  her  mournful  story, 
enjoining  upon  them  to  avenge  her  injury  ;  and,  being  unable 
to  survive  her  dishonor,  plunged  a  dagger  into  her  bosom,  and 
expired. 

17.  Her  corpse  was  carried  to  the  public  square  ;  the  ven- 
geance of  the  people  was  roused  ;  and,  by  the  strenuous  exer- 
tions of  Brutus,  the  senate  pronounced  a  sentence  of  perpetual 
banishment  against  Tarquin  and  his  family.  The  tyrant, 
being  expelled  from  his  capital,  and  abandoned  by  his  army 
was  never  able  to  gain  a  readmission  into  the  city  ;  and  the 
regal  government  was  abolished,  after  having  continued  244 
years. 


SECTION   II. 

The  Commonwealth  :  Consuls,  Collatinus  and  Br  uf.us :  Vale- 
rius :  Porsenna :  Dictator :  The  Plcheians  encamp  on 
Mons  Sacer :  Tribunes :  Coriolanus :  Lata  of  Volero : 
Cincinnatus :  The  Twelve  Tables :  Decemvirs :  Appius 
Claudius.  —  From  B.  C.  509  to  449. 

1.  The  regal  authority  being  abolished,  a  republican  form 

of  government  was  established   in   its  stead.     The  supreme 

power,  as  lieretoforc,  belonged  to  the  senate  and  people ;  but, 

instead  of  a  regent  for  life,  two  consuls  were  chosen  annually, 

6 


63  ROME. 

from  the  patrician  families,  as  prcsiflcnts  of  the  republic,  antl 
chief  directors  of  aflliirs.  Their  power  was  nearly  the  same 
as  that  of  the  kings,  except  that  it  was  limited  to  one  year. 
The  first  consuls  were  Bru'lus  and  CoUati'nus,  who  had  taken 
so  distinguished  a  part  in  the  expulsion  of  the  tyrants. 

2.  Tarquui  was  now  in  Etruria,  where  he  prevailed  upon 
two  of  the  most  powerful  cities,  Ve'ii  and  Tarquin'ii,  to  es- 
pouse his  cause.  He  had  also  numerous  partisans  in  Rome, 
particularly  among  the  young  patricians,  who  preferred  the 
luxuries  and  splendor  of  a  royal  court  to  the  simplicity  and 
austerity  of  a  republic.  A  plot  was  formed  to  open  the  gates 
to  receive  him,  and,  upon  its  being  discovered,  Brutus  had  the 
mortification  to  find  his  two  sons  among  the  conspirators.  They 
were  brought  to  trial  before  himself;  he  condemned  them  to 
be  beheaded  in  his  presence,  and  witnessed  the  shocking  spec- 
tacle with  a  steady  look  and  an  unaltered  countenance.  "  He 
ceased  to  be  a  father,"  says  an  ancient  author,  "  that  he  might 
execute  the  duties  of  a  consul,  and  chose  to  live  childless 
rather  than  to  neglect  the  public  punishment  of  a  crime." 

3.  The  insurrection  in  the  city  being  suppressed,  Tarquin 
relied  wholly  upon  external  aid,  and  raised  an  army  in  order  to 
regain  the  crown ;  but  he  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  under 
the  command  of  the  consuls,  Vale'rius  (who  was  elected  in 
place  of  CoUatinus)  and  Brutus.  In  this  battle*  Brutus  was 
killed,  and  the  Roman  matrons  honored  his  memory  by  wear- 
ing mourning  for  him  a  whole  year.  Vale'r'ius,  after  the  vic- 
tory, i-eturned  to  the  city,  and  was  the  first  Roman  who  enjoyed 
the  splendid  reward  of  a  triumph. 

4.  Valerius  having  become  arrogant  from  the  honors  which 
he  had  received,  his  popularity  began  to  decline ;  and,  with  a 
view  to  recover  it,  he  proposed  a  law,  termed,  from  him,  the 
Valerian  law,  which  granted  to  a  citizen,  condemned  by  a 
magistrate,  the  right  of  appealing  to  the  people.  This  gave 
the  first  blow  to  the  aristocracy  in  the  Roman  republic. 

5.  For  13  years  after  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin,  the  Romans 
were  involved  in  continual  hostilities  on  his  account.  Of  these, 
the  most  remarkable  was  the  war  with  the  Etrurians,  under 
their  king  Porsen'na  ;  a  war  fertile  in  exploits  of  romantic  he- 
roism, and  signalized  by  the  daring  intrepidity  of  Hora'tius 
Co'cles,  who,  alone,  arrested  the  progress  of  the  enemy  at  the 
head  of  a  bridge,  and  of  Mutius  Scdv'ola,  who  entered  the 
enemy's  camp  in  disguise,  with  a  design  to  assassinate  Por- 
senna  ;  but  hostilities  were  finally  terminated  by  an  amicable 
arrangement  between  the  two  parties. 

6.  Dangers  from  domestic  disorders  were  soon  added  to 
ihosc  of  war.     Tarquin  had  induced  the  Latins  to  enlist  in  his 


ROME.  68 

cause,  and  approached  the  city  with  his  army.  The  plebeians, 
being  poor,  and  oppressed  with  debt,  complained  of  their 
grievances,  and  refused  to  aid  in  repelling  the  enemy,  unless 
tiie  senate  would  grant  them  relief,  by  remitting  their  debts  to 
tlic  rich.  The  consuls  found  their  authority  of  no  avail,  ns 
the  Valerian  law  gave  to  any  condemned  citizen  the  right  of 
appealing  to  the  people. 

7.  An  extraordinary  measure  was  now  necessary ;  and  a 
new  magistrate  was  created,  styled  diclalor,  who  was  to  con- 
tinue in  ofhcc  only  as  long  as  the  danger  of  the  state  required, 
never  exceeding  the  space  of  six  mouths,  and  was  vested  with 
absolute  power.  He  was  appointed  only  in  cases  of  public 
exigency,  w^hen  quick  and  decisive  measures  were  necessary. 
He  had  authority  to  make  peace  and  war,  to  levy  taxes,  to  ap- 
point all  public  officers,  and  to  dispense  with  the  laws,  without 
consulting  the  senate  or  people.  Tifus  Lar'tius,  one  of  the 
consuls,  being  elevated  to  this  high  office,  raised  a  large  army, 
and,  by  his  firmness  and  moderation  having  restored  tran- 
quillity, resigned  the  dictatorship.  War  having  been  again  ex- 
cited by  the  Tarquins,  Posthu'mius  was  appointed  dictator  ;  the 
Romans  were  completely  victorious,  and  the  sons  of  Tarquin 
were  slain. 

8.  After  the  death  of  the  Tarquins^  and  the  return  of  peace, 
Rome  was  disturbed  by  domestic  dissensions,  and  the  dispute 
between  the  creditors  and  debtors  was  again  revived.  On  an 
alarm  of  war,  the  plebeians  refused  to  take  up  arms  in  defence 
of  the  republic.  Their  language  was,  "  Of  what  consequence 
is  it  to  us  whether  our  chains  are  forged  by  our  enemies  or  our 
fellow-citizens.  Let  the  patricians,  since  they  alone  have  the 
reward  of  victories,  encounter  the  dangers  of  war."  At  length, 
finding  no  relief  from  their  oppressions,  the  whole  army  aban- 
doned their  officers,  withdrew  from  Rome,  and  encamped  upon 
Mona  Saccr,  about  three  miles  from  the  city.  Here  they  were 
soon  joined  by  the  greater  part  of  the  people. 

9.  This  resolute  procedure  had  the  desired  effect.  The 
senate,  being  alarmed,  deputed  ten  of  the  most  respectable  of 
their  order,  with  authority  to  grant  a  redress.  Mene'itius 
J]ij)~ip'pa,  one  of  the  senators,  is  said  to  have  related,  in  his 
speech  to  the  people,  with  great  effect,  the  celebrated  fable  of 
the  belly  and  the  members.  A  reconciliation  was  brought 
about.  The  debts  of  the  plebeians  were  abolished,  and,  for 
their  future  security,  they  were  allowed  the  right  of  choosing, 
from  their  own  order,  magistrates,  styled  trib'unes,  who  should 
have  the  power  of  annulling,  by  a  single  veto,  every  measure 
which  they  should  judge  prejudicial  to  their  interest.  The 
tribunes  were  elected  annually  ;  their  number  at  first  was  five, 


64  ROME. 

afterwards  increabed  to  ten.  By  them  tlie  aristocracy  was  held 
within  bounds,  and  the  fury  of  the  populace  was  regulated. 
Two  magistrates,  styled  cediles,  were  appointed  to  assist  the 
tribunes,  and  to  take  charge  of  the  public  buildings. 

10.  The  neglect  of  agriculture,  which  had  arisen  from  the 
revolt  of  the  army,  brought  on  a  famine,  which  caused  great 
commotion;  but  the  arrivarof  a  large  quantity  of  corn  from 
Sicily  produced  a  temporary  relief.  At  this  time,  the  resent- 
ment of  the  people  was  strongly  excited  against  Coriola'nus, 
who  was  a  man  of  aristocratic  principles,  of  talents  and  cour 
age,  and  who  had  distinguished  himself  in  a  war  against  the 
Volsci.  He  advised  that  no  corn  should  be  distributed  to  the 
people,  unless  they  would  restore  the  rights  of  the  senate,  and 
abolish  the  oflice  of  the  tribunes.  In  consequence  of  the  re- 
sentment which  these  proposals  excited,  the  tribunes  brought 
charges  against  him,  and  he  was  sentenced  by  the  people  to 
perpetual  banishment.  He  then  went  over  to  the  Volsci,  who 
appointed  him  their  commander  ;  and  he  led  their  army  against 
Rome,  which  was,  for  a  time,  threatened  with  ruin  ;  but  he  was 
at  last  persuaded,  by  the  earnest  entreaties  of  his  mother  and 
his  wife,  to  lay  down  his  arms. 

11.  The  proposal  of  an  Agrarian  law  for  dividing  among 
the  people  the  lands  which  were  obtained  by  conquest,  and 
which  were  the  joint  property  of  all  the  citizens,  proved  an 
apple  of  discord  thrown  out  between  the  rich  and  the  poor. 
Such  a  division  of  the  public  lands  was  demanded  by  the 
plebeians,  but  it  was  strenuously  opposed  by  the  patricians. 
The  design  was  repeatedly  brought  forward  before  any  such 
law  was  enacted,  and  caused  violent  dissensions. 

12.  By  the  influence  of  the  tribune  Vol'ero,  a  law  was  en- 
acted that  the  election  of  tribunes  should  be  made,  and  the 
chief  public  business  discussed,  in  the  comitia,  or  public  meet- 
ings held  by  tribes ;  and  not,  as  before,  by  the  centuiies  and 
curiae.  By  this  law,  the  supreme  authority  was  taken  from  the 
patricians  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  plebeians,  and  the 
Roman  government  became  a  democracy. 

13.  Dissensions  arising  on  account  of  the  proposed  Agrarian 
law,  and  dangers  from  the  invasions  of  the  2Equi  and  Volsci, 
Cincinna'tus  was  twice  called  from  the  plough  to  assume  the 
government  as  dictator.  Having  completely  vanquished  the 
enemies  of  his  country,  and  entered  the  city  in  a  splendid 
triumph,  he  resigned  his  office,  and  returned  again  to  his  re- 
tirement, to  labor  upon  his  farm. 

14.  The  Romans  had  hitherto  possessed  no  body  of  written 
laws.  Under  the  regal,  government,  the  kings  administered 
justice ;  and  the  consuls  succeeded  them  in  the  exercise  of 


HOME.  65 

this  high  authority.  But  their  arbitrary  proceedings  were  fre- 
quently the  subject  of  complaint,  and  the  citizens  became 
desirous  of  having  a  fixed  code  of  laws  for  the  security  of  their 
rights.  Three  commissioners  were,  therefore,  sent  to  Greece, 
in  order  to  procure  the  laws  of  Solon,  and  such  others  as  were 
deemed  useful  in  forming  a  suitable  code. 

15.  Upon  the  return  of  the  commissioners,  ten  of  the  prin- 
cipal senators,  styled  decemvirs,  were  appointed  to  digest  a 
body  of  laws,  and  put  them  in  execution  for  one  year.  This 
was  the  origin  of  those  celebrated  statutes  known  by  the  name 
of  tlie  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  which  formed  the  basis  of 
Roman  jurisprudence,  and  continued  to  be  of  the  highest 
authority  in  the  most  flourishing  times  of  the  republic. 

16.  The  decemvirs  were  invested  with  absolute  power ;  and 
during  the  time  for  which  they  were  appointed,  all  other  magis- 
trates were  suspended.  Each  decemvir,  by  turn,  presided  for 
a  day,  and  had  the  sovereign  authority,  with  its  insignia  and 
fasces.  They  governed  with  so  much  moderation  and  equity 
diuung  the  first  year,  that  they  obtained  a  new  appointment ; 
but  they  soon  became  tyrannical,  and  two  flagrant  abuses  oi 
jjower  by  Ap'pius  C/au'dlus,  the  leading  member  of  their  body, 
caused  a  speedy  termination  of  the  oflice. 

17.  One  of  these  crimes  was  his  procuring  the  assassination 
of  Sichi'ius  Denta'in!^,  a  Roman  tribune,  who,  on  account  of 
his  extraordinary  valor  and  exploits,  was  styled  the  Roman 
AchiVles ;  the  other  was  his  villany  with  regard  to  Virginia,  a 
beautiful  young  maiden,  who  had  been  betrothed  to  leiVius, 
formerly  a  tribune.  Having  seen  her  as  she  was  going  to  a 
public  school,  and  being  inflamed  with  a  lawless  passion,  lie 
employed  a  profligate  dependent  to  claim  her  as  his  own 
property,  on  the  pretence  of  her  being  the  daughter  of  one  of 
his  female  slaves. 

18.  lie  caused  the  claim  to  be  brought  for  trial  before  him- 
self, and  pronounced  an  infamous  decree,  by  which  the  inno- 
cent victim  was  torn  from  her  parents,  and  placed  within  liis 
own  power.  Virginius,  her  father,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
dishonor  of  his  daughter,  plunged  a  dagger  into  her  heart. 
Brandishing  in  his  hand  the  bloody  weapon,  he  exclaimed, 
"  By  this  blood,  Appius,  I  devote  thy  head  to  the  infernal 
gods,"  and  running  wildly  through  the  city,  he  roused  the 
people  to  vengeance.  Appius  soon  after  died  in  prison  by  his 
own  hand  ;  the  other  decemvirs  went  into  exile ;  the  decem- 
virate,  after  having  continued  for  three  years,  was  abolished  ; 
and  the  consuls  were  restored. 

6* 


•6  HOME. 


SECTION  III. 


Military  Tribunes .  Cetisors  :  Veii  destroyed  :  Camillus  ■ 
Rome  burnt  by  the  Gauls :  Bremms :  Manlius :  The 
Samnites  :  Pyrrhus  :  Conquest  of  Italy.  —  From  B.  C. 
449  to  266. 

1.  The  two  great  barriers  which  still  separated  the  patri- 
cians and  plebeians  were  the  prohibition  of  their  intermar- 
riage, and  the  limitation  of  the  office  of  consul  to  the  patri- 
cians. After  a  long  contest,  the  law  prohibiting  intermarriages 
was  repealed,  with  the  hope  that  this  concession  would  satisfy 
tlie  people.  But  this  success,  on  the  contrary,  stimulated  them 
to  urge  their  claim  to  be  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  consulship ; 
and  on  the  occurrence  of  war,  they  had  recourse  to  their  for- 
mer custom  of  refusing  to  enlist,  unless  their  demand  was 
granted. 

2.  After  a  long  contest,  it  was  agreed  on  both  sides,  that 
instead  of  consuls,  six  military  tribunes,  with  the  power  of 
consuls,  should  be  chosen,  three  of  them  from  the  patricians, 
and  three  from  the  plebeians.  This  institution,  however,  was, 
in  a  short  time,  laid  aside  ;  and  the  consuls  were  again  restored 
to  office. 

3.  The  disorders  of  the  republic  prevented  the  survey,  or 
enumeration,  of  the  citizens  from  being  regularly  attended  to. 
In  order  to  remedy  this  neglect,  two  officers,  styled  censors, 
were  appointed ;  and  it  was  made  their  duty,  not  only  to  take 
the  census  every  five  years,  but  also  to  inspect  the  morals  and 
regulate  the  duties  of  all  the  citizens.  This  was  an  office  of 
great  dignity  and  importance,  exercised  for  100  years  by  pa- 
tricians;  in  the  later  times  of  the  republic,  only  by  consular 
persons ;  and  afterwards  by  the  emperors. 

4.  In  order  to  avoid  the  evils  which  arose  from  the  people's 
frequently  refusing  to  enlist  in  the  army,  the  senate  introduced 
the  practice  of  giving  regular  pay  to  the  troops.  From  this 
period,  the  Roman  system  of  war  assumed  a  new  aspect.  The 
senate  always  found  soldiers  at  command ;  the  army  was  un- 
der its  control ;  the  enterprises  of  the  republic  were  more  ex- 
tensive, and  its  success  more  signal  and  important.  The  art 
of  war  was  improved,  as  it  now  became  a  profession,  instead 
of  an  occasional  employment.  The  Roman  dominion,  hitherto 
confined  to  a  territory  of  a  few  miles,  soon  began  to  be  rapidly 
extended. 

5.  The  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Ve'ii,  long  the  proud  rival 
of  Rome,  equal  in  extent  and  population,  had  repeatedly  made 


ROME.  ^ 

depredations  on  the  Roman  territories ;  and  it  was  decreed 
that  Veii,  whatever  it  might  cost,  should  be  destroyed.  A 
siege  was  begun,  which  was  continued,  with  great  exertion  and 
various  success,  for  ten  years.  At  length,  in  order  to  carry 
it  on  with  greater  vigor,  Camilhis  was  created  dictator ;  and 
to  him  was  intrusted  the  sole  management  of  the  long  pro- 
tracted war. 

6.  He  caused  a  passage  to  be  opened  under  ground  into 
Ll)e  citadel,  by  means  of  which  he  fdled  the  city  with  his  le- 
gions, who  plundered  and  destroyed  it.  Camillus  was  honored 
with  a  splendid  triumph,  in  which  he  was  drawn  in  a  chariot 
by  four  white  horses  ;  but  being  afterwards  accused  of  having 
appropriated  to  his  own  use  a  part  of  the  plunder  of  Veii, 
indignant  at  the  ingratitude  of  his  countrymen,  he  went  into 
voluntary  exile. 

7.  The  Gauls,  a  barbarous  and  warlike  people,  had  long 
before  this  opened  a  passage  through  the  Alps,  and  had  settled 
themselves  in  the  northern  part  of  Italy.  Under  the  command 
of  their  king  Brcnnus,  they  laid  siege  to  Clu'sium,  a  city  of 
Etruria,  the  inhabitants  of  which  implored  the  assistance  of 
the  Romans.  The  senate  sent  three  patricians  of  the  Fabian 
family  on  an  embassy  to  Brennus,  to  inrjuire  wh.at  offence  the 
citizens  of  Chisium  had  given  him.  To  this  he  sternly  replied, 
that  "  the  right  of  valiant  men  lay  in  their  swords  ;  that  the 
Romans  themselves  had  no  other  right  to  the  cities  they  had 
conquered."  The  ambassadors,  having  obtained  leave,  entered 
Clusium,  and  assisted  the  inhabitants  against  the  assailants. 
This  so  incensed  Brennus,  that  he  raised  the  siege,  marched 
directly  towards  Rome,  and,  in  a  great  battle  near  the  rivulet 
Allia,  defeated  the  Roman  army  with  great  slaughter. 

8.  The  Gauls  then  entered  Rome,  and  after  a  general  mas- 
sacre of  such  of  the  inhabitants  as  remained  in  it,  and  a  pillage 
of  the  city,  they  burnt  it  to  ashes,  and  razed  the  walls  to  the 
ground.  They  next  besieged  the  capitol  ;  but  the  Romans 
repelled  their  attacks  with  great  bravery.  At  length,  having 
discovered  footsteps  leading  up  to  the  top  of  the  Tarpeian 
Rock,  a  body  of  Gauls  undertook  the  difficult  enterprise  of 
gaining  the  summit  in  the  night,  which  they  accomplished 
while  the  Roman  sentinel  was  asleep.  At  this  moment,  the 
cackling  of  some  geese  in  the  temple  of  Juno  is  said  to  have 
awakened  Marcus  Manlius,  with  his  associates,  who  instantly 
threw  the  Gauls  headlong  down  the  precipice. 

9.  From  this  time,  the  hopes  of  the  Gauls  began  to  decline, 
and  they  soon  after  agreed  to  quit  the  city  on  condition  of  re- 
ceiving 1000  pounds  weight  of  gold  ;  but,  after  the  gold  waa 
brought,  the  Gauls  weighed  with  false  weights,  and   the  com* 


08  ROME. 

plaints,  which  the  Romans  made  of  the  deception,  were  treated 
with  insolence.  At  this  juncture,  Camillus,  who  had  recently 
been  restored  to  favor,  and  aijain  appointed  dictator,  appeared 
at  the  gates  with  an  army.  Having  been  informed  of  tlie  de- 
ception and  insolence  of  the  Gauls,  he  ordered  the  gold  to  be 
carried  back  into  the  capitol,  commanded  the  Gauls  to  retire, 
adding  that  "  Rome  must  be  ransomed  by  steel,  and  not  by 
gold."  Upon  this  a  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  Gauls  were 
entirely  routed,  and  Camillus  was  honored  as  the  father  of  hjs 
country  and  the  second  founder  of  Rome.  The  city,  being 
freed  from  its  invaders,  soon  began  to  rise  again  from  its  ashes. 

10.  Manlius  was  liberally  rewarded  for  his  heroism ;  but  at 
length,  envying  the  fame  of  Camillus,  he  abandoned  himself 
to  ambitious  views ;  and  being  accused  of  aiming  at  sovereign 
power,  he  was  sentenced  to  be  thrown  headlong  from  the  Tar- 
peian  Rock.  Thus  the  place,  which  had  been  the  theatre  of  his 
glory,  became  that  of  his  punishment  and  infamy. 

11.  The  Romans  next  turned  their  arms  against  the  Sa7n- 
nites,  a  race  of  hardy  mountaineers,  iidiabiting  an  extensive 
tract  in  the  southern  part  of  Italy.  This  contest  lasted  upwards 
of  50  years,  and  was  carried  on  by  the  Samnites  with  great 
valor  and  skill,  though  they  were  finally  subdued.  They 
defeated  the  Romans  at  Cmidince.  Furculff.,  near  Caudium,  and 
made  their  whole  army  pass  under  the  yoke,  formed  by  two 
spears  set  upright,  and  a  third  bound  across  them.  This  roused 
the  spirit  of  revenge  on  the  part  of  the  Romans,  who  a])pointed 
Papir'ius  Cursor  dictator  ;  and  the  next  year,  under  his  com- 
mand, they  gained  a  victory  over  the  Samnites,  compelling 
them,  in  turn,  to  undergo  the  same  disgrace  at  Luce'ria ;  and 
by  the  exertions  of  Fabius  Maximus  and  Decius,  they  were 
finally  subjugated. 

12.  During  the  consulship  of  Manlius  Torquatus,  a  war 
broke  out  between  the  Romans  and  Latins.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent confusion  in  time  of  action  by  reason  of  the  similarity  of 
the  two  nations,  Manlius  issued  orders  that  death  should  be  in- 
flicted on  any  one  wiio  should  leave  his  ranks.  When  the  two 
armies  were  drawn  out  for  battle.  Melius,  a  Latin  commander, 
challenged  to  single  combat  any  Roman  knight.  Titus  Man- 
lius, the  son  of  the  consul,  accepted  the  challenge,  and  slew 
his  adversary ;  and  for  this  act  he  was  beheaded  by  the  stern 
order  of  his  father.  The  Latins  were  vanquished,  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  Romans. 

13.  The  Tarentines,  who  were  the  allies  of  the  Samnites, 
sought  the  aid  of  P//7T/(?«,king  of  Epi'rus,  the  greatest  general 
of  his  age.  He  landed  at  Tarentum  with  an  army  of  30,000 
men,  and  twenty  elephants  ;  and  the  Romans,  under  the  com- 


ROME.  69 

raand  of  the  consul  Lcevi'nus,  not  being  accnstomed  to  the  mode 
of  fighting  with  elephants,  wfere  at  first  defeated,  with  the  loss 
of  15,000  men  ;  that  of  Pyrrhus  was  nearly  as  great ;  and  he 
was  heard  to  confess  that  another  such  victory  would  compel 
him  to  return  to  Epirus.  Ilis  admiration  of  the  heroism  of  his 
enemy  drew  from  him  the  celebrated  exclamation^  "  O,  with 
what  ease  could  I  conquer  the  world,  had  I  the  Romans  for 
soldiers,  or  had  they  me  for  their  king !  " 

14.  In  the  progress  of  the  war,  Fabri'cius,  who  afterwards 
cotmnanded  the  Roman  army,  received  a  letter  from  the  phy- 
sician of  Pyrrhus,  importing  that  for  a  proper  reward  he  M'ould 
poison  the  king.  Fabricius,  indignant  at  so  base  a  proposal, 
gave  immediate  information  of  it  to  Pyrrhus,  who,  admiring 
the  generosity  of  his  enemy,  exclaimed,  "  It  is  easier  to  turn 
the  sun  from  his  course,  than  Fabricius  from  the  path  of 
honor  I  "  —  and  that  he  might  not  be  outdone  in  magnanimity, 
he  released  all  his  Roman  prisoners  without  ransom. 

15.  Pyrrhus  then  withdrew  his  army  from  Italy,  in  order  to 
assist  the  Sicilians  against  the  Carthaginians ;  but  he  again 
returned,  and  made  a  last  effort  near  Benei-entum,  where  he 
was  totally  defeated  by  Cu'rius  Denf.a'tus.  He  then  withdrew 
to  his  own  dominions,  and  the  Romans,  after  having  gained 
further  victories  over  the  Samnites,  became  masters  of  all 
Loiver  Italy. 


SECTION  IV. 
Carthage :  Sicily. 

1.  As  the  history  of  Rome  now  becomes  connected  with 
that  of  Carthage  and  Sicily,  it  may  be  proper  to  introduce 
here  a  short  notice  of  those  states. 

2.  Carthage  is  said  to  have  been  founded,  nearly  900  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  by  Dido,  with  a  colony  of  Tyrians. 
The  government,  at  first  monarchial,  became  afterwards  re- 
publican, and  it  is  commended  by  Aristotle  as  one  of  the  most 
perfect  of  antiquity.  The  two  chief  magistrates,  called  suffe'- 
tes,  or  judges,  were  elected  annually  from  the  fii"st  families. 
The  religion  was  a  cruel  superstition,  and  human  victims  were 
offered  in  sacrifice. 

3.  In  the  time  of  the  Punic  wars,  Carthage  was  the  most 
commercial  and  wealthy  city,  and  one  of  the  most  splendid 
in  the  world.  It  had  under  its  dominion  about  300  smaller 
towns  in  Africa,  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  a  great  part 
of  Spain,  also  of  Sicily,  and  other  islands.     The  Carthagini- 


70  ROME. 

ans  worked  the  gold  mines  of  Spain ;  they  were  devoted  to 
commerce,  and  had  the  vices  and  characteristics  of  a  commer- 
cial people.  The  Romans,  who  were  their  rivals  and  enemies, 
represented  them  as  wanting  in  integrity  and  honor ;  hence 
the  ironical  phrase,  Pu'nica  fides  [Punic  faith],  to  denote 
treachery. 

4.  History  records  the  names  of  few  persons  among  the  Car- 
thaginians eminent  as  philosophers,  or  distinguished  in  the 
arts.  The  Per'iplus^  or  voyage  of  Hanno,  an  illustrious  Car- 
thaginian, who  wrote  an  account  of  his  expedition,  aftords 
proof  of  ardent  enterprise.  Carthage  produced  several  cele- 
brated generals,  among  whom  were  HamiVcar,  As'drubal,  and 
Hannibal :  the  last  was  the  most  formidable  enemy  that  Rome 
ever  experienced. 

5.  The  Phoenicians  sent  colonies  to  Sicily  before  the  Trojan 
war,  and  the  Greeks,  at  later  periods,  made  settlements  on 
the  island.  Sicily  contained  many  large  and  opulent  cities ; 
of  these,  Syr'acuse,  founded  by  the  Corinthians,  was  the  most 
populous  and  commercial,  and  larger  than  any  of  the  cities  of 
Greece.  It  was  governed,  in  its  early  ages,  like  most  of  the 
other  cities  of  Sicily,  by  a  democracy,  but  at  length  it  fell  into 
the  power  of  an  individual. 

6.  To  Gelon,  one  of  its  sovereigns,  history  ascribes  every 
virtue  ;  but  his  successors  being  cruel  tyrants,  the  people  took 
measures  to  rid  themselves  of  the  regal  government.  It  was, 
however,  after  60  years,  again  restored  in  the  person  of  Dio- 
nysiuSy  a  man  of  great  talents ;  but  he  found  it  easier  to  ac- 
quire royalty  than  to  preserve  and  enjoy  it.  His  son,  Dionys- 
ius  the  Younger^  a  weak  and  capricious  tyrant,  was  dethroned 
by  the  aid  of  Timo'leon,  an  illustrious  Corinthian,  and  exiled 
to  Corinth,  where  he  died  in  poverty. 


SECTION  V. 

First  Punic  War ;  Regulus :  Second  Punic  War ;  Hanni- 
bal :  Conquest  of  Macedonia :  Third  Punic  War ;  Car- 
thage desiroyed :  Conquest  of  Greece.  —  From  B.  C.  264 
to  133. 

1.  The  Romans,  having  become  masters  of  all  Lower  Italy, 
were  eager  to  extend  their  conquests  into  foreign  countries. 
They  had  hitherto  made  no  naval  conquests,  and  possessed  no 
fleet.     Carthage  was  now  their  most  formidable  rival,  and  the 


ROME.  71 

greatest  maritime  power  in  the  world,  possessing  an  extensive 
sway  over  all  the  commercial  towns  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Carthaginians  were  rich  in  merchandise,  in  silver  and 
gold  :  the  Romans  were  comparatively  poor,  but  preeminent 
in  patriotism  and  valor,  and  ambitious  of  conquest. 

2.  The  Majjier tines,  a  people  of  Campa'nia,  obtained  assist- 
ance of  the  Romans  in  a  war  with  Hi'cro,  tyrant  of  Syracuse. 
The  Syracusans  being  at  first  assisted  by  the  Carthaginians,  a 
war  was  brought  on  between  the  latter  and  the  Romans,  styled 
ihc/irsl  Punic  War.  The  object,  at  first,  of  both  parties,  was 
merely  to  obtain  possession  of  Mcasa'na,  in  order  to  command 
the  passage  of  the  straits,  which  took  their  name  from  that 
city ;  but  it  soon  became  a  contest  for  the  sovereignty  of  the 
whole  island,  and  the  dominion  of  the  seas. 

3.  The  Romans  now  earnestly  applied  themselves  to  mari- 
time affairs.  A  Carthaginian  vessel,  which  happened,  in  a 
storm,  to  be  driven  ashore,  served  as  a  model ;  and  within 
two  months,  a  fleet,  consisting  of  upwards  of  100  vessels,  of  a 
rude  construction,  was  prepared,  of  which  the  command  was 
given  to  the  consul  DuWliiis,  who  defeated  the  Carthaginians, 
and  took  50  of  their  vessels.  Soon  after  the  commencement 
of  the  war,  the  Syracusans,  changing  their  course,  joined  the 
Romans,  and  Agrigea'tum  was  taken  from  the  Carthaginians. 

4.  The  Romans  increased  their  naval  force  to  upwards  of 
300  galleys,  and  gained  another  great  victory,  off'  the  coast  of 
Sicily,  over  the  Carthaginians,  who  then  made  an  offer  of 
peace ;  but  it  was  rejected.  The  consul  Reg'uhis,  with  an 
army,  soon  landed  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  defeated  the  Cartha- 
ginians, and  appeared  before  the  gates  of  the  capital.  Here, 
being  met  by  the  Carthaginians,  under  the  comrinand  of  Xan- 
t.hip'pus,  a  Spartan,  he  was  totally  defeated,  and  taken  prisoner. 
He  was  afterwards  sent  with  the  Carthaginian  ambassadors  to 
Rome,  in  order  to  procure  peace,  under  an  oath  to  return  if 
the  negotiation  should  fail.  Regulus,  thinking  the  terms  not 
advantageous  to  his  country,  strenuously  opposed  their  being 
accepted,  and  returned  to  Carthage,  where  he  was  put  to  death 
with  the  most  cruel  tortures. 

5.  The  war  continued  to  rage  in  Sicily  with  various  suc- 
cess;  but  the  Romans  finally  jjrcvailed,  and  the  Carthagini- 
ans were  compelled  to  accept  of  humiliating  terms  of  peace. 
They  agreed  to  abandon  Sicily,  to  i)ay  the  Romans  3,200  tal- 
ents, and  release  their  captives.  Sicily  was  now  declared  a 
Roman  province,  but  Syracuse  still  maintained  its  independent 
government.  After  the  close  of  this  war,  the  Romans  made  a 
conquest  of  Cisnl''pine  Gaul. 

6.  Tiic  peace  between  the  Romans  and  Carthaginians  lasted 


72  ROME. 

23  years;    and  during  a  part  of  this  period,  the  temple  of 
Janus  was  shut  for  the  first  time  since  the  reign  of  Numa. 

7.  The  most  distinguished  Carthaginian  commander  in  the 
first  Punic  war  was  Hamil'car^  who  was  the  father  of  Han'- 
nibal,  and  who  trained  his  son  to  war,  and  made  him  swear, 
when  very  young,  a  perpetual  enmity  to  the  Roman  name. 
Hannibal  was  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  antiquity,  and  at 
the  early  age  of  26  years,  was  raised  to  tlie  chief  command 
of  the  Carthaginian  army.  He  commenced  the  second  Punic 
War  by  besieging  Sagnntum,  a  city  of  Spain  in  alliance  with 
the  Romans.  After  a  siege  of  seven  months,  the  desperate  in- 
habitants set  fire  to  the  city,  and  perished  in  the  flames. 

8.  Hannibal  now  formed  the  bold  design  of  carrying  the 
war  into  Italy,  and  by  an  arduous  and  toilsome  march,  he  led 
his  army  over  the  Pyr'enees^  and  afterwards  over  the  Alps,  and 
gained  four  great  victories,  —  the  first  over  Scip'io,  near  the 
Tici'nus ;  the  second  over  Semjiro'nius,  near  the  Tre'bia ;  the 
third  over  Flamin'ms,  near  lake  Thrasyme'nus ;  and  the  fourth 
over  Mmil'ius  and  Vai'ro,  at  Cannce.  The  last  was  the  most 
memorable  defeat  that  the  Romans  ever  suffered.  According 
to  Livy,  50,000,  and,  according  to  Polybius,  no  less  than  70,000, 
of  tlieir  troops  were  left  dead  on  the  field,  together  with  the 
consul  iEmilius.  Among  the  slain  were  5,000  or  6,000 
Roman  knights,  the  greater  part  of  the  whole  body ;  and 
Hannibal  is  said  to  have  sent  to  Carthage  three  bushels  of  gold 
rings,  which  they  wore  on  their  fingers. 

9.  Hannibal  has  been  censured  for  not  making  the  best  use 
of  this  great  victory  by  immediately  attacking  Rome,  and,  in- 
stead of  doing  this,  for  leading  his  troops  into  winter-quarters, 
at  Cap'ua,  where  they  were  corrupted  and  enervated  by  dissi- 
pation in  that  luxurious  city. 

10.  The  Romans,  being  now  guided  by  the  counsels  of  the 
sagacious  and  prudent  Fa'bius  Max'imus,  concentrated  their 
strength.  The  chief  command  of  their  armies  was  given  to 
Fabius,  styled  the  Shield,  and  to  Marcel/us,  the  Sword  of 
Rome.  The  good  fortune  of  Hannibal  now  forsook  him  ;  and 
he  remained  13  years  in  Italy,  after  the  battle  of  Cannfc,  with- 
out gaining  any  signal  advantage.  At  the  siege  of  Nola,  he 
was  repulsed  by  Marcellus  with  considerable  loss,  and  his 
army  was  harassed  and  weakened  by  Fabius. 

11.  Syracuse,  which  had  taken  part  with  Carthage,  was  be- 
sieged by  Marcellus,  and  after  being  defended  for  three  years 
by  the  inventive  genius  of  the  celebrated  mathematician  Ar- 
chime'des,  it  was  at  last  compelled  to  surrender.  This  event 
put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of  Syracuse,  which  now  became  a 


ROME.  73 

part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Sicily.  A  large  army  of  Car- 
thaginians was  sent  from  Spain  into  Italy  under  the  command 
of  As'druhal,  the  brother  of  Hannibal,  who  was  defeated  with 
great  slaughter  by  the  Romans,  under  the  command  of  the 
consuls  Livy  and  Nero,  near  the  small  river  Melau'rus,  which 
empties  into  the  Tyrrhene  sea. 

12.  Scip'io,  afterwards  surnamed  Africa'nus,  having  con- 
quered Spain,  passed  ovei*  into  Africa,  witli  a  Roman  army, 
and  carried  havoc  and  devastation  to  the  walls  of  Carthage. 
Alarmed  for  the  fate  of  their  empire,  the  Carthaginians  imme- 
diately recalled  Hannibal  from  Italy.  These  two  great  com- 
manders, Hannibal  and  Scipio,  at  the  head  of  their  respective 
armies,  fought  on  the  plains  of  Zama  a  memorable  battle,  in 
which  the  Carthaginians  were  totall}^  defeated.  A  peace  soon 
followed,  the  conditions  of  which  were,  that  Carthage  should 
abandon  Spain,  Sicily,  and  all  the  other  islands  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, surrender  all  their  prisoners,  give  up  their  whole  fleet, 
except  ten  galleys,  and,  in  future,  undertake  no  war  without 
the  consent  of  the  Romans.  Thus  terminated  the  second  Pu- 
nic war,  in  the  humiliation  of  Carthage,  after  liaving  continued 
for  17  years. 

13.  Hannibal  afterwards  fled  from  his  country ,  and  passed 
the  last  13  years  of  his  life  in  Syria  and  Bithynia.  During  his 
exile,  Scipio  resided  a  while  in  the  same  countr}^  and  many 
friendly  conversations  passed  between  them  ;  in  one  of  which 
the  Roman  is  said  to  have  asked  the  Carthaginian  "  whom  he 
thought  the  greatest  general."  Hannibal  immediately  replied, 
"  Alexander ;  because  that,  with  a  small  body  of  men,  he  had 
defeated  very  numerous  armies,  and  had  overrun  a  great  part 
of  the  world."  "  And  who  do  you  think  deserves  the  next 
place  }  "  continued  the  Roman.  "  Pyrrhus,"  replied  the  oth- 
er ;  "  he  first  taught  the  method  of  forming  a  camp  to  the  best 
advantage.  Nobody  knew  better  how  to  choose,  or  post 
guards  more  properly."  "  And  whom  do  you  place  next  to 
those  .''  "  said  Scipio.  "  Myself,"  said  Hannibal ;  at  which 
Scipio  asked,  with  a  smile,  "  Where,  then,  would  you  have 
placed  yourself,  if  you  had  conquered  me  }  "  "  Above  Alex- 
ander," replied  the  Carthaginian,  "  above  Pyrrhus,  and  above 
all  other  generals." 

14.  While  engaged  in  hostilities  with  the  Carthaginians,  the 
Romans  prosecuted  the  first  Macedonian  Wai\  which  termi- 
nated in  the  defeat  of  king  Philip,  in  the  battle  of  Cynoceph'a- 
le.  Not  long  afterwards,  a  Roman  army,  under  Scip'io,  sur- 
named Asiat'iciis,  invaded  Syria,  and,  in  the  battle  of  Magnesia, 
defeated  Anli'ochus  the  Great.     The  second  Macedonian  War 

1 


74  ROME. 

followed,  which  terminated  in  the  defeat  of  Per'seus,  the  last 
king  of  that  country,  in  the  battle  of  Pydna,  and  the  reduction 
of  Macedonia  to  a  Roman  province, 

15.  About  50  years  after  the  conclusion  of  the  second  Punic 
war,  the-Carthaginians  attempted  to  repel  the  Numidians,  who 
made  incursions  into  a  territory  claimed  by  the  former.  The 
Romans,  pretending  this  was  a  violation  of  their  treaty,  laid 
hold  of  it  as  a  pretext  for  commencing  the  third  Pimic  TFar, 
with  a  determination  to  effect  the  entire  destruction  of  Car- 
thage. Por'cius  Cato,  the  censor,  who  now  swayed  the  de- 
cisions of  the  senate,  had  long  cherished  this  savage  design, 
and  had  been  in  the  habit  of  concluding  his  speeches  with 
this  expression  ;  DcJeiida  est  Carthago^  "  Carthage  must  be 
destroyed." 

16.  The  Carthaginians,  conscious  of  their  inability  to  resist 
the  Romans,  offered  every  submission,  and  were  ready  even 
to  acknowledge  themselves  subjects  of  Rome.  They  yielded 
up,  to  the  demand  of  the  Romans,  their  ships,  their  arms,  and 
munitions  of  war.  They  were  then  required  to  abandon  the 
city,  in  order  that  it  might  be  destroyed.  This  demand  was 
heard  by  the  inhabitants  with  a  mixed  feeling  of  indignation 
and  despair  ;  but  the  spirit  of  liberty  and  independence  not  be- 
ing yet  extinct,  they  were  roused  to  make  the  most  strenuous 
efforts,  having  resolved  to  sacrifice  their  lives  rather  than  to 
obey  the  barbarous  mandate. 

17.  After  the  most  desperate  resistance  for  three  years,  the 
city  was  at  last  taken  by  Scipio^  the  second  Africanus,  and, 
being  set  on  fire,  the  flames  continued  to  rage  during  17  days. 
Thus  was  Carthage,  with  its  walls  and  buildings,  the  habita- 
tions of  700,000  people,  razed  to  its  foundations.  Such  of  the 
inhabitants  as  disdained  to  surrender  themselves  prisoners  of 
war,  were  either  massacred  or  perished  in  the  flames.  The 
scenes  of  horror  were  such  as  to  force  tears  even  from  the  Ro- 
man general. 

18.  The  year  in  which  this  barbarous  transaction  took  place 
was  signalized  by  the  taking  of  Cor'inth,  and  the  reduction  of 
Greece  to  a  Roman  province.  And  a  few  years  afterwards, 
Numan'tia,  in  Spain,  after  a  tremendous  siege,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans. 


ROME.  ta 


SECTION   VI. 

The  Gracchi:  Jugurtha :  Social  War:  Miihridates :  Maiixis 
and  Sylla  :  Servile  War  :  Conspiracy  of  Catiline.  —  From 
B.  C.  133  to  63. 

1.  The  Romans  had  hitherto  been  characterized  by  temper- 
nnce,  severity  of  manners,  military  enterprise,  and  public 
spirit ;  but  they  were  not  as  yet  a  literary  people,  and  the  arts 
and  sciences  had  been  but  little  cultivated  by  them.  These 
were  now  introduced  from  Greece  ;  and  the  period  of  the  sub- 
jugation of  that  country  is  the  era  of  the  dawn  of  taste  and  lit- 
erature in  Rome.  Acquaintance  with  foreign  nations,  and  the 
introduction  of  foreign  wealth,  began  also,  at  this  period,  to  in- 
troduce luxury  and  corruption  of  manners. 

2.  The  power  of  Rome  was  now  widely  extended  ;  her  arms 
had  been  everywhere  triumphant ;  and  by  the  destruction  of 
Carthage  she  was  freed  from  the  fear  of  a  rival.  But  when 
there  was  no  longer  a  foreign  object  to  excite  apprehension, 
she  began  to  be  torn  by  domestic  dissensions,  which  continued, 
in  various  forms,  to  distract  the  state,  till  the  final  dissolution 
of  the  commonwealth. 

3.  Tibe'rius  and  Ca'ius  Grac'chus^  men  of  eloquence  and 
influence,  distinguished  themselves  by  asserting  the  claims  of 
the  people.  Tiberius,  the  elder  of  the  two  brothers,  being  a 
tribune,  attempted  to  check  the  power  of  the  patricians,  and 
abridge  their  overgrown  estates,  by  reviving  the  Licinian  law., 
which  ordained  that  no  citizen  should  possess  more  than  500 
acres  of  the  public  lands.  A  tumult  was  the  consequence,  in 
which  Tiberius,  together  with  300  of  his  friends,  was  killed  in 
the  forum  by  the  senators. 

4.  This  fatal  example  did  not  deter  his  brother  Caius  from 
pursuing  a  similar  career,  in  endeavoring  to  maintain,  by 
force,  the  privileges  of  the  people,  against  the  encroachments 
of  the  senate.  But,  like  his  brother,  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  at- 
tempt, with  3,000  of  his  partisans,  who  were  slaughtered  in  the 
streets  of  Rome  by  the  consul  Opim'ius. 

5.  Jugur'tha,  a  grandson  of  Masi7iis'sa,  attempted  to  usurp 
the  crown  of  Niwiid'ia  by  destroying  his  cousins,  Hiemp'sal 
and  Adher'bal,  grandsons  also  of  Masinissa,  and  sons  of  the  de- 
ceased king  Micip'sa.  He  murdered  the  elder,  but  Adherbal, 
the  younger,  escaping,  applied  to  Rome  for  aid  ;  but  the  sen- 
ate, being  bribed  by  Jugurtha,  divided  the  kingdom  between 
the  two.  Jugurtha,  having  defeated  and  slain  his  cousin,  seized 
the  whole  kingdom  ;  but  he  excited  against  himself  the  ven> 
geance  of  the  Romans. 


76  ROME. 

6.  War  being  declared  against  him,  the  Roman  army  was 
at  first  commanded  by  Mctelhis ;  but  the  celebrated  Ma'rius', 
having  supplanted  and  succeeded  him  in  command,  gained  two 
great  victories  over  Jugurtha,  who  was  taken  prisoner,  led  in 
chains  to  Rome,  and,  after  having  graced  the  triumph  of  the 
conqueror,  was  confined  in  a  dungeon,  where  he  was  starved 
to  death.  Marius  afterwards  led  the  Roman  army  against  the 
Teu'tones  and  Cimbri,  and  defeated  them  with  great  slaughter. 

7.  A  confederacy  of  the  states  of  Italy  against  Rome,  to 
ootain  the  rights  of  citizenship,  gave  rise  to  the  Social  War, 
which  continued  to  rage  for  several  yeai's,  and  is  said  to  have 
caused  the  destruction  of  about  300,000  men.  It  was  ended 
by  conceding  the  rights  of  citizenship  to  all  such  as  should  re- 
turn to  their  allegiance. 

8.  Mithrida'tes,  king  of  Pontus,  the  most  powerful  monarch 
of  the  East,  and  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  the  age,  formed 
a  design  of  uniting  in  a  confederacy  the  eastern  and  northern 
nations,  and,  at  the  head  of  their  forces,  of  overrunning  Italy. 
He  began  the  war  by  causing  about  80,000  Romans,  who 
dwelt  in  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  to  be  massacred  in  one  day ; 
and  soon  after  he  invaded  Greece.  —  In  this  celebrated  contest, 
styled  the  Mithridatic  War,  the  famous  Roman  generals,  Sylla, 
LucuUiis  and  Pompey,  successively  bore  a  distinguished  part. 

9.  Sylla,  a  man  of  great  talents  and  an  able  general,  who 
had  distinguished  himself  in  the  late  wars,  and  was  now  at  the 
head  of  an  army  in  Campania,  was  appointed  to  the  chief 
command  in  the  war  against  Mithrida'tes.  He  belonged  to  an 
illustrious  family,  and  was  popular  with  the  senate.  But  his 
great  rival  Marius,  a  peasant  by  birth,  was  an  enemy  to  the 
aristocracy,  and  a  favorite  with  the  people.  He  was  now  70 
years  of  age,  had  been  distinguished  for  his  warlike  genius 
and  exploits  for  nearly  half  a  century,  and  had  been  honored 
with  two  triumphs  and  six  consulates.  But  his  ambition  was 
not  yet  satisfied ;  and  he  had  the  address  to  get  the  command 
of  the  army  transferred  from  Sylla  to  himself. 

10.  Sylla,  on  receiving  this  intelligence,  finding  his  troops 
devoted  to  him,  led  them  immediately  to  Rome,  which  he 
entered  sword  in  hand,  surrounded  the  house  of  the  senate,  and 
compelled  that  body  to  issue  a  decree  declaring  Marius  an 
enemy  to  his  country.  Marius,  being  obliged  to  flee,  made 
his  escape  into  Africa,  and  Sylla  afterwards  entered  upon  the 
Mithridatic  war.  Cinna,  a  zealous  partisan  of  Marius,  col- 
lected an  army,  recalled  the  veteran  warrior,  who,  after  gain- 
ing a  bloody  victory,  entered  Rome,  and  gave  orders  for  mur? 
dering  all  the  great  senators.  After  a  horrible  massacre  of 
their  enemies,  Marius  and  Cinna  proclaimed  themselves  con« 


ROME.  77 

suls,  without  the  formality  of  an  election.  But  the  career  of 
Marius  was  soon  terminated  by  death,  and,  not  long  after,  Cinna 
was  assassinated. 

11.  Sylla,  after  having  had  a  victorious  campaign  in  the 
war  against  Mithrida'tes,  in  which  he  gained  great  victories, 
returned  to  Italy,  and  entering  Rome  with  his  army,  caused 
another  horrible  massacre,  in  which  his  object  was  to  extermi- 
nate every  enemy  he  had  in  Italy.  Having  obtained  the  ap- 
pointment of  perpetual  dictator,  he  caused  the  streets  of  Rome 
to  flow  with  the  blood  of  her  citizens.  To  the  surprise,  how- 
ever, both  of  his  friends  and  of  his  enemies,  he  resigned  the 
dictatorship,  before  he  had  completed  three  years  in  office,  and 
retired  to  a  villa  at  Pute'oli,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
days  in  the  society  of  licentious  persons,  and  the  occasional 
pursuits  of  literature.  On  his  death,  he  was  honored  with  a 
magnificent  funeral,  and  a  monument  with  the  following  epi- 
taph, written  by  himself:  — "I  am  Sylla  the  Fortunate,  who, 
in  the  course  of  my  life,  have  surpassed  both  friends  and 
enemies ;  the  former  by  the  good,  the  latter  by  the  evil  I  have 
done  them."  —  In  the  civil  wars  carried  on  between  Sylla  and 
Marius,  150,000  Roman  citizens  were  sacrificed,  including 
200  senators,  and  33  men  who  had  been  consuls. 

12.  After  the  death  of  Sylla,  the  old  dissensions  again 
broke  out  between  the  two  parties,  supported  respectively  by 
the  two  consuls,  CaL'ulus  and  Lep'ldus.  The  latter  favored  the 
party  of  Marius,  and  was  also  supported  by  Serto'rius,  a  great 
general,  who  was  now  at  the  head  of  an  army  in  Spain,  where 
he  established  an  independent  republic,  and  sustained,  with 
great  ability,  a  war  for  several  years  against  the  Roman  state  ; 
but  he  was  at  last  murdered  by  Perper'na. 

13.  The  commonwealth  was  now,  for  two  years,  harassed 
by  the  Servile  War,  excited  by  Spar'tacus,  a  Thracian  shep- 
herd who  had  been  kept  at  Capua  as  a  gladiator.  Escaping 
from  his  confinement,  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  slaves,  laid  waste  the  country  ;  but  he  was  at  length 
totally  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  40,000  men,  by  Crassus. 

14.  A  few  years  after  the  defeat  of  Spar'tacus,  a  conspiracy, 
threatening  the  destruction  of  Rome,  was  headed  by  Cat'iline, 
a  man  of  extraordinary  courage  and  talents,  but  of  ruined  for- 
tune,  and  most  profligate  character.  A  plan  was  concerted, 
that  there  should  be  a  simultaneous  insurrection  throughout 
Italy ;  that  Rome  should  be  fired  in  different  places  at  once ; 
and  that  Catiline,  at  the  head  of  an  army,  should  take  pos- 
session of  the  city  and  massacre  all  the  senators. 

15.  This  sanguinary  plot  was  seasonably  detected  and 
crushed  by  the  vigilance  and   energy  of   the  consul   Cicero^ 

1* 


78  ROME. 

the  great  Roman  orator.  Catiline,  at  the  head  of  12,000  men 
whom  he  had  collected,  was  defeated  and  slain,  together  with 
his  whole  army. 


SECTION  VII. 

First    Triumvirate :     Civil    War    of   CcBsar    and   Pompey : 
Second  Triumvirate :  Dissolution  of  the  Commonwealth.  - 
From  B.  C.  60  io  31. 

1.  Pompey,  who,  on  account  of  his  military  exploits,  was 
surnamed  the  Great,  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  in 
conducting  the  Mithridatic  War,  which  he  brought  to  a  suc- 
cessful termination.  He  defeated  Mithrida'tes,  king  of  Pon- 
tus,  and  Tigra'nes,  king  of  Armenia,  and  reduced  Syria, 
together  with  Jndea,  to  the  state  of  a  Roman  province.  Re- 
turning home,  after  his  splendid  campaign,  the  Romans  honor- 
ed him  with  a  triumph,  and  gazed,  for  three  successive  days, 
on  the  spoils  of  eastern  grandeur,  which  preceded  his  chariot. 

2.  The  two  most  considerable  men  now  in  Rome  were 
Pompey  and  Crassus ;  the  former  distinguished  for  his  talents, 
popularity,  and  military  fame,  the  latter  for  his  enormous 
wealth,  extensive  patronage,  and  great  liberality.  Julius 
Ccesar  had,  before  this  time,  distinguished  himself  by  his  mili- 
tary achievements,  and  risen  into  public  notice.  When  a 
young  man,  he  was  exceedingly  profligate,  and  had,  at  an 
early  age,  excited  the  jealousy  of  Sylla,  who,  discerning  his 
great  talents  and  ambition,  said  of  him,  that  "  he  saw  many  a 
Marius  in  that  dissolute  youth."  Pompey  and  Crassus  were 
hostile  to  each  other,  both  of  them  contending  for  the  com- 
mand of  the  republic.  Cmsar  paid  court  to  both,  and  had  the 
address  to  unite  them.  The  three  formed  the  design  of  ap- 
propriating to  themselves  the  whole  power  of  the  state,  and 
entered  into  that  famous  league,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
First  Triumvirate. 

3.  They  distributed  the  foreign  provinces  among  themselves  : 
Pompey  received  Spain  and  Africa,  and  remained  in  Rome ; 
Crass  as  chose  Syria,  which  was  the  richest ;  Caesar  took  Gaul, 
and  he  ratified  his  treaty  with  Pompey  by  giving  him  his 
(laughter  Jw/ia  in  marriage.  Crassus,  having  made  war  against 
the  Parthians,  who  were  commanded  by  Sure'na,  was  defeated 
in  a  battle  fought  near  Carrce,  and  was  afterwards  taken  and 
slain,  leaving  the  empire  to  his  two  colleagues.  The  bond  of 
union  between  CsBsar  and  Pompey  had  already  been  dissolved 
by  the  recent  death  of  Julia ;  the  two  rivals  became  jealous 


ROME.  79 

3f  each  other  ;  each  began  to  manifest  hostility,  and  to  aspire 
to  undivided  dominion. 

4.  On  the  division  of  the  provinces  among  the  triumvirs, 
Coesar  had  proceeded  immediately  to  take  possession  of  Gaul^ 
which  was  inhabited  by  many  barbarous  and  warlike  nations, 
most  of  them  yet  unconquered.  Here  he  had  a  most  brilliant 
career  of  victory,  in  eight  campaigns,  which  he  conducted 
with  extraordinary  ability.  He  contrived  to  give  a  color  of 
justice  and  humanity  to  his  bloody  operations,  by  professing 
himself  the  protector  of  the  native  inhabitants  against  the  in- 
vasions of  tlie  Helvetii  and  the  Germans.  He  acquired  a 
high  military  reputation,  and  great  popularity  ;  and  rendered 
himself  the  idol  of  his  troops  by  sharing  with  them  every  dan- 
ger, and  by  his  great  liberality,  affability,  and  clemency. 

5.  Pompey,  who  had  remained  all  this  time  in  Rome,  was 
alarmed  on  account  of  the  great  reputation  of  his  rival,  and 
endeavored  to  thwart  liis  views.  The  term  of  Cfesar's  govern- 
ment being  about  to  expire,  he  applied  to  the  senate  to  be  con- 
tinued in  his  authority ;  but  this  body,  being  devoted  to  Pom- 
pey, denied  his  demand.  He  now  resolved  to  support  his 
claim  by  force  of  arms,  and  a  civil  war  was  the  consequence. 
The  consuls  and  most  of  the  senators  were  the  friends  of  Pom- 
pey. Caesar  had  on  his  side  a  victorious  army  devoted  to  his 
cause,  and  the  great  body  of  Roman  citizens,  whom  he  had 
won  by  his  liberality. 

6.  Pompey  had  been  careful  to  place  in  the  provinces  gov- 
ernors devoted  to  himself;  but  he  had  no  army,  and  took  no 
measures  to  raise  one.  Cicero,  surprised  at  his  negligence  in 
his  preparations,  asked  him  with  what  troops  he  expected  to 
oppose  Ca3sar  ?  "  I  need  only  stamp  my  foot  on  the  ground," 
he  replied,  "  and  an  army  will  arise." 

7.  Ca3sar,  having  bound  his  army  to  him  by  an  oath  of  fidel- 
ity, led  it  over  the  Alps,  and,  stopping  at  Ravenna,  wrote  to 
the  Roman  government,  offering  to  resign  all  command,  in  case 
Pompey  would  do  the  same  ;  but  the  senate  decreed  that  he 
should  lay  down  his  government  and  disband  his  forces,  within 
a  limited  time,  under  the  penalty  of  being  declared  an  enemy 
to  the  commonwealth.  Cfesar  marched  his  army  to  the  banks 
of  the  Ru'hico7i,  a  small  river  separating  Italy  from  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  and  forming  the  limits  of  his  command  ;  and  to  pass 
which  with  an  army,  or  even  a  single  cohort,  had  been  declared 
by  the  senate  a  sacrilege  and  parricide.  On  arriving  at  this 
famous  stream,  he  is  said  to  have  hesitated,  impressed  with  the 
greatness  of  the  enterprise,  and  its  fearful  consequences,  and 
to  have  said  to  PoUio,  one  of  his  generals,  "  If  I  pass  this  riv- 
er, what  miseries  I  shall  bring  on  my  country  !  and  if  I  do  not 


'80  ROME. 

pass  it,  I  am  undone."  Soon  after,  he  exclaimed,  "  The  die 
is  cast !  "  and,  putting  spurs  to  his  horse,  he  passed  the  stream, 
followed  hy  his  soldiers. 

8.  The  news  of  this  movement  excited  the  utmost  terror  in 
Rome.  The  citizens  reproached  Pompey  with  his  supineness. 
"  Where  now,"  said  a  senator,  in  derision,  "  is  the  army  that 
is  to  rise  up  at  your  command  ?  Let  us  see  if  it  will  come  by 
stamping."  Pompey  himself  was  alarmed,  and  aware  that  he 
was  unable  to  resist  Cajsar  in  Rome,  where  the  great  body  of 
the  citizens  were  devoted  to  him,  he  led  his  forces  to  Cap'ua. 
where  he  had  two  legions  ;  thence  he  proceeded  to  Brundu'- 
sium,  and  passed  over  to  Di/rrach'ium,  in  Macedonia.  He  was 
followed  by  the  consuls  and  a  great  part  of  the  senate,  and^look 
measures  to  levy  troops  both  in  Italy  and  Greece. 

9.  Caesar,  having  made  himself  master  of  Italy  in  60  days, 
directed  his  course  to  Rome,  entered  the  city  triumphantly 
amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  people,  seized  the  public  treas- 
ury, and  possessed  himself  of  the  supreme  authority  without 
opposition.  He  made  great  ostentation  of  clemency,  said  that 
he  entered  Italy,  not  to  injure,  but  to  restore  the  liberties  of 
Rome  and  the  citizens,  and  gradually  dissipated  the  fears 
which  had  been  generally  entertained  of  another  proscription. 
After  staying  a  few  days  in  the  city,  he  proceeded  with  his 
army  to  Spain,  defeated  Pompey's  lieutenants,  made  himself 
master  of  the  whole  country,  and  returned  victorious  to  Rome, 
where  the  citizens  created  him  dictator  and  consul. 

10.  The  monarchs  of  the  East  had  declared  in  favor  of 
Pompey,  and  had  sent  him  large  supplies  ;  and  he  had  at  this 
time  collected  a  numerous  army.  His  cause  was  considered 
that  of  the  commonwealth  ;  and  he  was  daily  joined  by  crowds 
of  the  most  distinguished  nobles  and  citizens  from  Rome.  He 
had,  at  one  time,  in  his  camp,  upwards  of  200  senators,  among 
whom  were  Cicero  and  Calo,  whose  approbation  a^one  was 
equivalent  to  a  host. 

11.  CfEsar  stayed  only  eleven  days  at  Rome  :  being  anxious 
to  bring  his  antagonist  to  a  decisive  engagement,  he  pursued 
him  with  his  army,  and  near  Dyrrach'ium  an  engagement  took 
place,  which  terminated  in  favor  of  Pompey,  who  afterwards 
led  his  troops  into  the  plains  of  Pharsa'Ua.  Caesar  did  every- 
thing to  provoke  a  general  battle  ;  and  when  he  saw  his  enemy 
advancing,  he  exclaimed,  "  The  time  we  have  so  long  wished 
for  is  come  ;  let  us  see  how  we  are  to  acquit  ourselves."  The 
contest  was  now  calculated  t6  excite  the  deepest  interest ;  the 
two  armies  were  composed  of  the  best  soldiers  in  the  world, 
and  were  commanded  by  the  two  greatest  generals  of  the  age ; 
and  the  prize  contended  for  was  nothing  less  than  the  Roman 
empire. 


ROME  81 

12.  Pompey's  army  consisted  of  upwards  of  50,000  men  ; 
Ceesar's,  of  less  than  half  that  number  ;  yet  the  troops  of  the 
latter  were  far  the  best  disciplhied.  On  the  side  of  Pompey, 
there  was  the  most  confident  expectation  of  success  ;  the  rninds 
of  all  being  less  occupied  about  the  means  of  conquering,  than 
about  distributing  the  fruits  of  victory.  The  engagement, 
which  lasted  from  early  in  the  morning  till  noon,  terminated  in 
a  decisive  victory  in  favor  of  CjEsar,  who  lost  only  200  men, 
while  the  loss  of  Pompey  amounted  to  15,000  killed,  and 
21,000  prisoners. 

13.  Coesar,  on  this  occasion,  manifested  his  characteristic 
clemency,  and  the  honors  which  he  had  acquired  as  victor 
were  soon  rendered  more  glorious  by  liis  humanity  and  mod- 
eration. He  set  at  liberty  the  senators  and  Roman  knights, 
and  incorporated  with  the  rest  of  his  army  the  most  of  the  pris- 
oners. The  baggage  of  Pompey  was  brought  to  him,  contain- 
ing numerous  letters  of  his  enemies  ;  these  he  threw  into  the 
fire  without  opening  them.  When  viewing  the  field  strewn 
with  his  fallen  countrymen,  he  seemed  affected  at  the  melan- 
choly sight,  and  exclaimed,  as  if  by  way  of  justification,  — 
"  They  would  have  it  so  !  " 

14.  The  fate  of  Pompey  was  wretched  in  the  extreme.  Ac- 
customed to  victory  for  30  years,  and  master  of  the  republic, 
he  was  in  one  day  deprived  of  his  power,  and  became  a  mis- 
erable fugitive.  Taking  with  him  his  wife  Cornelia,  he  fled 
with  very  few  attendants  to  Egypt,  to  seek  protection  of  Ptol- 
emy, whose  father  he  had  befriended.  But  he  was  basely  mur- 
dered in  the  presence  of  his  wife,  and  his  body  thrown  upon  the 
sand.  His  freed  man  burnt  his  corpse,  and  buried  the  ashes, 
over  whicli  the  following  inscription  was  afterwards  placed  :  — 
"  He,  whose  merits  deserve  a  temple,  can  now  scarcely  find 
a  grave."  In  the  mean  time,  Cassar  had  instantly  followed 
I'ompey  into  Egypt,  and  the  head  of  his  rival,  which  had  been 
preserved,  was  presented  to  him  ;  but  he  turned  his  face  from 
it  with  horror,  shedding  tears  on  remembering  their  former 
friendship,  and  he  ordered  a  splendid  monument  to  be  erected 
to  liis  memory. 

15.  The  throne  of  Egypt  was  now  possessed  by  Ptolemy 
and  his  sister,  the  celebrated  Cleopa'lra.  The  latter  aspired 
to  r.ndivided  authority,  and  Caesar,  captivated  by  the  charms 
of  the  beautiful  queen,  decided  the  contest  in  her  favor.  A 
war  ensued,  in  which  Ptolemy  was  killed,  and  Egypt  subdued 
by  the  Roman  arms.  Cajsar  for  a  while  abandoned  himself 
to  pleasure,  in  the  company  of  Cleopatra,  but  was  at  length 
called  away  to  suppress  a  revolt  of  r/uirnaces,  the  son  of 
Mithrida'tes,   who   I  id   seized    upon   Colchis  and    Armenia. 


82  ROME. 

Caesar  subdued  him  with  great  ease,  in  a  battle  at  Zela  ;  and 
in  his  letter  to  Rome,  he  expressed  the  rapidity  of  his  conquest 
in  three  words  :  Veni,  vidi,  Vici ;  "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  con 
quered."  ■*" 

16.  Caesar  now  hastened  to  Rome,  whicli  he  found  in  a  state 
of  great  disorder,  by  reason  of  the  bad  government  of  Mark 
Antony  ;  but  he  soon  restored  tranquillity.  Pompey's  party 
had  rallied  their  forces  in  Africa,  under  the  command  of  Ca!o 
and  Scipio,  assisted  by  Jiiha,  king  of  Maurita'nia.  Csesar  pui'- 
sued  them  thither,  and  gained  a  complete  victory  in  the  battle 
of  Thapsus.  Cato,  who  was  a  rigid  Stoic  and  a  stern  republi- 
can, shut  himself  up  in  Utica,  where  he  meditated  a  brave 
resistance  ;  but,  perceiving  all  was  lost,  he  killed  himself  in 
despair. 

17.  The  war  in  Africa  being  thus  ended,  Cai-sar  returned 
again  to  Rome,  and  celebrated  a  most  magnificent  triumph, 
which  lasted  four  days  :  the  first  was  for  Gaul  ;  the  second  for 
Egypt ;  the  third  for  his  victories  in  Asia  ;  and  the  fourth  for 
his  victory  over  Juba.  He  distributed  liberally  rewards  to  his 
veteran  soldiers  and  officers,  and  to  the  citizens  ;  he  treated 
the  people  with  combats  of  elephants,  and  engagements  be- 
tween parties  of  cavalry  and  infantry  ;  and  he  entertained 
them  at  a  public  feast,  at  which  20,000  couches  were  placed 
for  the  guests.  The  multitude,  intoxicated  by  these  allure- 
ments of  pleasure,  cheerfully  yielded  up  their  liberties  to  their 
great  enslaver.  The  senate  and  people  vied  with  each  other 
in  acts  of  servility  and  adulation.  He  was  hailed  /a/Jier  of  his 
country,  was  created  perpetual  dictator,  received  the  title  of 
imperator  or  emperor,  and  his  person  was  declared  sacred. 

18.  After  having  settled  affairs  at  Rome,  he  found  him- 
self obliged  to  go  again  into  Spain,  where  Lnbie'nus  and  the 
two  sons  of  Pompey  had  raised  an  army  against  him  ;  but  he 
completely  defeated  them  in  the  obstinate  and  bloody  battle 
of  Mimda,  which  decided  the  fate  of  the  adherents  of  hia 
rival 

19.  Having  now  acquired,  by  the  force  of  his  arms,  tlie 
whole  Roman  empire,  and  subdued  all  who  opposed  his  usur- 
pation, Csesar  returned  to  Rome  the  master  of  the  world.  But 
no  usurper  ever  used  his  power  with  greater  wisdom  and  mod- 
eration. "  I  will  not,"  he  said,  in  one  of  his  speeches,  "  re- 
new the  massacres  of  Sylla  and  Marius,  the  very  remembrance 
of  which  is  shocking  to  me.  Now  that  my  enemies  are  sub- 
dued, I  will  lay  aside  the  sword,  and  endeavor,  solely  by  my 
good  offices,  to  gain  over  those  who  continue  to  hate  me." 
He  pardoned  all  who  had  carried  arms  against  him,  made  no 
distinction  with  regard  to  parties,  devoted  himself  to  the  pros 


ROME.  83 

pcrity  and  happiness  of  the  people,  corrected  abuses,  extended 
his  care  to  the  most  distant  provinces,  reformed  the  calendar, 
undertook  to  drain  the  Pontine  marshes,  to  improve  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Tiber,  and  to  embellish  the  city  ;  and  he  con- 
ceived many  noble  projects  which  he  was  not  destined  to 
realize. 

20.  Thoujrh  Caesar  had  repeatedly  refused  the  crown  when 
offered,  by  Mark  Antony,  to  his  acceptance,  yet  a  rumor  was 
widely  circulated  that  he  aspired  to  the  name  of  an  ofiice  of 
which  he  enjoyed  all  the  splendid  realities  ;  and  the  fresh 
honors  which  the  senate  continued  to  heap  upon  him  were 
calculated  to  excite  the  envy  and  jealousy  of  a  body  of  men 
who  conspired  against  his  life  :  nor  could  he,  by  his  clemency 
and  munificence,  obliterate  from  the  minds  of  the  people  the 
remembrance  of  their  former  constitution,  or  of  the  manner  in 
which  he  had  obtained  his  power.  The  conspiracy  which  was 
now  formed  against  him  embraced  no  less  than  60  senators  ; 
and  at  the  head  of  it  were  Brutus  and  Cassius,  men  whose 
lives  had  been  spared  by  the  conqueror  after  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia.  The  former,  who  was  beloved  by  Caesar,  and  had  re- 
ceived from  him  numerous  favors,  was  actuated  by  hatred,  not 
of  the  tyrant,  but  of  tyranny,  and  sought  the  equivocal  repu- 
tation of  sacrificing  all  the  ties  of  friendship  and  gratitude  to 
the  love  of  liberty  and  of  his  country.  The  latter  thirsted  for 
revenge  against  an  envied  and  hated  superior. 

21.  The  rumor  that  the  crown  was  to  be  conferred  upon  the 
dictator  on  the  ides  [ISth]  of  March,  induced  the  conspira- 
tors to  fix  upon  that  day  for  the  execution  of  their  designs  ; 
and  no  sooner  had  Caesar  taken  his  seat  in  the  senate-house, 
than  he  was  assailed  by  their  daggers.  He  defended  himself 
for  a  while  with  vigor,  till,  on  a  sudden,  seeing  Brutus  among 
the  assailants,  and  being  astonished  at  the  desertion  of  his 
friend,  he  uttered  the  celebrated  exclamation,  Et  tu  Brute  ! 
"  And  you,  too,  Brutus  !  "  when,  muffling  up  his  face  with  his 
mantle,  he  resigned  himself  to  his  fate,  and  fell  pierced  with 
23  wounds.  Thus  perished  Julius  Ccesar,  in  the  56th  year  of 
his  age,  14  years  after  he  commenced  his  career  of  conquest 
in  Gaul,  and  after  having  been  only  about  five  months  in  the 
undisputed  possession  of  that  power,  which  it  had  been  the  ob- 
ject of  his  life  to  obtain. 

22.  Cresar  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  men  that  hav(! 
appeared  in  history,  uniting  the  threefold  character  of  the  his- 
torian, the  warrior,  and  the  statesman.  Although,  as  the  sub- 
verter  of  the  liberties  of  his  country,  he  deserves  only  to  be 
detested,  yet  he  is  not  without  claims  to  admiration ;  for,  to- 
gether with  his  unbounded  ambition,  he  possessed  the  inosl 


84  ROxME. 

splendid  endowments  of  genius,  and  many  noble  qualities  of 
the  heart ;  and  the  world  has  scarcely  seen  a  more  able  or  a 
more  amiable  despot. 

23.  His  career  was  indeed  bloody,  mvolving  in  destruction 
vast  numbers  of  his  species  ;  yet  he  had  no  tendency  to  cru- 
elty, except  so  far  as  it  was  necessary  to  effect  his  ambitious 
designs,  nor  any  thirst  for  blood  ;  and  he  was  always  distin- 
guished for  his  clemency  to  a  vanquished  enemy.  It  has  beer 
said,  by  way  of  apology  for  him,  that  it  was  his  misfortune  to 
be  born  in  a  degenerate  age  :  it  was,  however,  the  age  in  which 
flourished  Cicero,  Cato,  and  Brutus,  who  are  ranked  among 
the  most  illustrious  of  the  Roman  patriots. 

24.  In  passing  a  small  village  among  the  Alps  on  his  way  to 
take  upon  himself  the  government  of  Spain,  before  the  forma- 
tion of  the  triumvirate,  he  remarked,  that  "  he  would  rather 
be  the  first  man  in  that  village,  than  the  second  man  in  Rome." 
He  had  frequently  in  his  mouth  a  verse  of  Eurip'ides,  which 
expresses  the  image  of  his  soul  :  "  That  if  right  and  justice 
were  ever  to  be  violated,  they  were  to  be  violated  for  the  sake 
of  reigning." 

25.  In  his  military  character,  he  has  probably  never  been 
surpassed.  He  was  so  much  the  idol  of  his  troops,  that  in  any 
important  conjuncture,  his  lieutenant  could  say  nothing  more 
impressive  to  them  than,  "  Soldiers,  imagine  that  Cassar  be- 
holds you  !  "  Alexander  was  an  heir  to  the  throne,  and  carried 
into  execution  the  splendid  conquest  which  his  father  had  pro- 
jected, overrunning  nations  sunk  in  luxury  and  effeminacy. 
Csesar,  originally  a  private  individual,  appears  as  the  framer  of 
his  own  fortune,  gradually  rising,  by  well-concerted  plans,  to 
the  summit  of  power,  pursuing  an  uninterrupted  career  of  vic- 
tory, and  finally  conquering  the  conquerors  of  the  world. 

26.  "  We  are  now  contemplating  that  man,"  says  Miiller, 
"  who,  within  the  short  space  of  14  years,  subdued  Gaul,  thick- 
ly inhabited  by  warlike  nations  ;  twice  conquered  Spain  ;  en- 
tered Germany  and  Britain  ;  marched  through  Italy  at  the  head 
of  a  victorious  army  ;  destroyed  the  power  of  Pompey  the 
Great ;  reduced  Egypt  to  obedience  ;  saw  and  defeated  Phar- 
naces  ;  overpowered,  in  Africa,  the  great  name  of  Cato  and 
the  arms  of  Juba  ;  fought  50  battles,  in  which  1,192,000  men 
fell  ;  was  the  greatest  orator  in  the  world,  next  to  Cicero  ;  set 
a  pattern  to  all  historians,  which  has  never  been  excelled  ;  wrote 
learnedly  on  the  sciences  of  grammar  and  augury  ;  and,  fall- 
ing by  a  premature  death,  left  memorials  of  his  great  plans  for 
the  extension  of  the  empire,  and  the  legislation  of  the  world 
So  true  it  is,  that  it  is  not  time  that  is  wanting  to  men,  but  res 
olution  to  turn  it  to  the  best  advantage." 


KoaiE.  85 

27.  The  Ruinaii  people  were  struck  wilh  horror  at  the  mur- 
der of  CfEsav.  Ahliough  he  was  a  usurper,  and  had  made 
himself  master  of  their  lives  and  fortunes,  yet  he  was  generally- 
popular.  His  bleeding  body  was  exposed  in  the  forum  ;  and 
over  it  MarJv  Antony,  unfolding  the  bloody  robe,  pronounced  a 
funeral  oration  ;  and  by  many  eloquent  ajipeals  to  the  sympathy 
of  the  people,  he  so  inflamed  their  feelings  against  his  murder- 
ers, that  they  were  obliged  to  escape  forthwith  from  the  city, 
in  order  to  avoid  destruction. 

28.  Mark  Anl any,  a  man  of  great  military  talents,  but  of 
most  profligate  character,  Lep'idus,  who  was  possessed  of  im- 
mense riches,  and  Ocla'iuus,  or  Odavia'nus  Cccsar,  afterwards 
surnamed  Aiigtislus,  (the  adopted  heir  of  Ccesar,  and  liis  sister's 
grandson,  now  only  in  his  18th  year,)  concerted  a  plan  to  di- 
vide among  themselves  the  supreme  authority,  and  formed  the 
Second  Triumvirate^  the  effects  of  whose  union  were,  beyond 
measure,  dreadful  to  the  republic. 

29.  They  stipulated  that  all  their  enemies  should  be  de- 
stroyed, and  each  sacrificed  his  best  friends  to  the  vengeance 
of  his  associates.  Antony  consigned  to  death  his  uncle  Lu'- 
cius ;  Lepidus,  his  brother  Paulus  ;  and  Octavius  gave  up  the 
celebrated  Cicero,  to  whom  he  was  under  many  obligations,  in 
order  to  gratify  the  hatred  of  Antony.  The  great  orator  was 
assassinated  in  his  64th  year,  by  Popillius  Leenas,  whose  life 
he  had  saved  in  a  capital  cause.  Antony  caused  his  head  to 
be  fixed  upon  the  rostra,  a  spectacle  which  drew  tears  from  all 
virtuous  citizens.  Rome  was  again  deluged  in  blood  :  in  this 
horrible  proscription,  300  senators,  2,000  knights,  and  many 
other  respectable  citizens,  were  sacrificed. 

30.  Brutus  and  Cassius,  whose  object  it  was  to  restore  the 
commonwealth,  had  retired  to  Thrace,  and  were  at  the  head 
of  an  army  of  100,000  men.  Antony  and  Octavius  pursued 
them  with  a  still  greater  number  of  troops.  The  empire  of 
the  world  again  depended  on  the  fate  of  a  battle.  The  two 
armies  met  near  Philippi,  and,  after  a  dreadful  conflict  of  two 
days,  the  death-blow  was  given  to  Roman  liberty,  by  the  total 
defeat  of  the  rejjublican  army.  Brutus  and  Cassius,  agreeably 
to  a  resolution  which  they  had  made  before  the  battle,  escaped 
the  vengeance  of  their  enemies  by  a  voluntary  death. 

31.  The  triumvirs  did  not  long  live  in  harmony.  Lep'idas 
was  deposed  and  banished.  Antony  having  summoned  Cleo- 
pa'tra  to  Tarsus,  to  answer  to  the  charge  of  having  given  suc- 
cor to  the  conspirators,  she  came  decked  in  all  tlie  emblems 
of  the  queen  of  love,  in  a  galley  decorated  in  the  most  splen- 
did style,  and  had  the  address  to  make  a  complete  conquest  of 
him.     He  forgot  to.  decide  upon  her  cause,  gave  up  the  pursuit 

8 


86  ROME. 

of  ambition,  neglected  all  his  afTuirs,  and  abandoned  hinnsclf 
to  licentious  pleasure  with  the  Egyptian  queen.  He  lavished 
on  her  the  provinces  of  the  empire,  for  which  he  was  declared 
an  enemy  to  the  lloman  people ;  and  on  her  account  he  di- 
vorced his  wife  Oc/ai-ia,  the  sister  of  his  colleague,  which  was 
a  signal  for  open  hostilities  between  him  and  Octavius. 

32.  A  great  naval  battle,  fought  near  Ac'liiwi,  decided  the 
contest  against  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  and  left  (-^ctavius  sole 
master  of  the  empire.  Antony,  following  the  example  of  many 
celebrated  Romans,  fell  ui)on  his  own  sword  ;  and  Cleopatra, 
in  order  to  avoid  being  led  captive  to  Rome,  to  grace  the 
triumph  of  Augustus,  procured  her  own  death  by  the  poison 
of  an  asp. 


SECTION  VIII. 

Rome  Uxnder  the  Emperors  :  The  Cccsars ;  Augustus,  Ti' 
berius,  Caligula,  Claudius,  Nero,  Galha,  Otho,  Vitellius^ 
Vespasian,  Titus,  and  Domitian.  —  From  B.  C.  31  to  A. 
D.  96. 

1.  The  battle  of  Actium  terminated  the  commonwealth  ; 
and  Octavius,  now  named  Augustus,  being  the  undisputed 
sovereign  of  the  whole  Roman  empire,  had  attained  the  object 
of  his  wishes.  But,  though  ambitious  of  power,  he  was,  never- 
theless, aware  of  its  dangers ;  and  he  consulted  his  friends, 
Agrippa  and  Mccce'nas,  respecting  the  course  which  it  was 
advisable  for  him  to  pursue.  Agrippa  entreated  him  to  restore 
liberty  to  his  country ;  but  Moscenas  represented  to  him  the 
danger  of  renouncing  his  authority,  advised  him  to  govern 
others  as  he  would  wish  to  be  governed  if  it  had  been  his  des- 
tiny to  obey,  and  suggested  to  him  that  under  the  title  of  Ccesar 
or  Imperator,  he  might  enjoy  all  the  influence  of  a  king,  with- 
out offending  the  prejudices  of  his  countrymen. 

2.  Augustus  gave  the  preference  to  the  advice  of  Msscenas, 
as  it  best  agreed  with  his  natural  love  of  power.  He  affected 
an  appearance  of  great  moderation  and  respect  for  the  public 
rights,  paid  particular  attention  to  the  people,  and  having 
completely  gained  their  affections,  he  used  every  means  to 
render  permanent  the  attachment  which  already  existed  be- 
tween him  and  his  soldiers.  It  was  his  policy  to  change  the 
nature,  rather  than  the  form  of  the  government,  and  he  had 
the  address  to  rule  as  emperor,  and  yet  preserve  the  appear- 
ance of  a  republic. 

3.  The  reputation  of  Augustus,  not  only  us  a  warrior,  but 


ROME.  87 

as  a  legislator  and  statesman,  extended  to  the  renjotest  king- 
doms. After  having  arrived  at  sovereign  power,  he  engaged 
in  some  successful  military  enterprises  ;  but  the  general  charac- 
ter of  his  reign  was  pacific :  he  cherished  the  arts  of  peace, 
embellished  the  city,  erected  public  edifices,  pursued  the  policy 
of  maintaining  order  and  tranquillity  throughout  his  vast  em- 
pire, and  the  temple  of  Janus  was  now  shut  for  the  first  time 
since  the  commencement  of  the  second  Punic  war,  and  only 
the  thin!  lime  from  the  foundation  of  the  city. 

4.  Augustus  died  in  the  76th  year  of  liis  age,  after  an  illus- 
trious reign  of  44  years.  His  talents  were  unquestionably 
great ;  but  the  many  instances  of  ti'eachery  and  cruelty  by 
which  his  conduct  was  marked,  while  a  member  of  the  trium- 
virate, have  Jcft  a  stain  upon  his  character,  and  have  caused  it 
to  be  generally  believed,  that  the  virtues  which  he  afterwards 
manifested,  sprung  from  policy,  rather  than  principle. 

5.  The  emperor  and  his  minister  Ma3cenas  were  both  em- 
inent patrons  of  learning  and  the  arts ;  and  the  Augustan  age 
of  Ivoman  literature  has  been  celebrated  by  the  admiration  of 
all  succeeding  ages.  Some  of  the  distinguished  men  who  il- 
lustrated this  reign  were  Virgil,  Horace,  Ovid,  and  Livy. 

G.  —  The  reign  of  Augustus  was  rendered  memorable  by 
the  birth  of  our  Lord  and  Sarior  Jesus  Christ,  which  took 
place,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  in  the  26th  year  of  his 
reign,  and  four  years  before  the  period  commonly  assigned  for 
the  Christian  era.  In  the  18th  year  of  Tiberius,  our  Savior 
suffered  death  upon  the  cross.  — 

7.  Augustus  was  succeeded  by  Tihe'rius,  who  was  the  son 
of  his  wife  Liv'ta,  by  a  former  husband,  and  who  had  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  military  talents.  The  new  emperor 
commenced  his  reign  by  a  show  of  moderation  and  clemency  ; 
but  he  soon  threw  off  the  mask,  and  appeared  in  his  real  char- 
acter, as  an  odious  and  cruel  tyrant.  The  specious  form  of 
the  republic,  which  Augustus  had  continued,  now  disappeared, 
as  well  as  the  substance. 

8.  The  brilliant  successes  of  his  nephew  German'icus,  in 
Germany,  who  had  for  his  antagonist  the  celebrated  (Tcrman 
general  Arjnin'ius,  and  the  high  favor  with  which  he  was 
regarded  by  the  people,  excited  the  jealousy  of  Tiberius,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  caused  him  to  be  poisoned.  He  then 
took  into  his  confidence  Seja'nus,  a  Roman  knight,  who  be- 
came tlie  minister  of  the  tyranny,  rapine,  and  cruelty,  which 
cliaracterized  his  reign,  and  who  persuaded  him  to  quit  Rome, 
and  retire  to  the  island  of  Ca'precc,  where  he  abandoned  him- 
.self  to  the  most  infamous  debaucheries.  Sejanus  was  now  in 
possession  of  almost  unlimited  power,  and  after  a  short  careej 


8i  ROME. 

of  despotism,  he  was  accused  of  treason,  suddenly  precipitated 
from  his  elevation,  executed  by  the  order  of  the  senate,  and 
his  body  ignominiously  dragged  through  the  streets.  A  few 
years  afterwards,  the  death  of  Tiberius  was  hastened  by  stran- 
gling or  poison,  by  one  of  his  favorites,  in  the  78th  year  of  his 
age,  and  the  22d  of  his  reign. 

9.  Tiberius  adopted  for  his  heir  and  successor  Calig'ula^ 
his  grand-nephew  and  the  son  of  Gcrmanicus,  who  com- 
menced his  reign  under  favorable  auspices,  and  his  first  acts 
were  beneficent  and  patriotic  ;  but  his  subsequent  conduct  was 
so  marked  by  profligacy,  tyranny,  madness,  and  folly,  as  to 
give  countenance  to  the  assertion  that  a  disorder,  which  took 
place  after  his  accession  to  power,  had  destroyed  his  under- 
standing and  altered  his  nature.  He  became  almost  as  much 
the  object  of  the  contempt,  as  of  the  hatred,  of  his  subjects. 
He  caused  temples  to  be  built,  and  sacrifices  to  be  offered  to 
himself  as  a  divinity.  He  took  such  delight  in  cruelty,  that  he 
wished  "  that  all  the  Roman  people  had  but  one  neck,  that  he 
might  despatch  them  at  a  single  blow."  Seneca  says  of  him, 
that  "  nature  seemed  to  have  brought  him  forth  to  show  what 
was  possible  to  be  produced  from  the  greatest  vice,  supported 
by  the  greatest  authority."  He  was  assassinated  in  the  4th 
year  of  his  reign,  and  the  29th  of  his  age. 

10.  After  the  death  of  Caligula,  the  senate  were  inclined 
to  restore  the  republic ;  but,  in  the  general  corruption  of 
morals,  which,  since  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
had  surpassed  all  former  example,  and  extended  to  all  classes 
of  the  people,  the  spirit  of  Roman  liberty  had  disappeared. 

,The  army  preferred  an  emperor,  and  Claudius,  the  uncle  of 
Caligula,  and  the  grandson  of  Mark  Antony  and  Octa'via,  the 
sister  of  Augustus,  was  raised  to  the  throne.  He  was  a  man 
of  weak  and  timid  character,  a  dupe  even  of  his  domestics, 
and  a  slave  of  his  infamous  vices. 

11.  The  most  remarkable  enterprise  in  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
was  his  expedition  into  Britain,  and  the  conquest  of  a  part  of 
that  island  by  his  generals.  Carac'tacus,  a  British  king,  after 
a  brave  resistance,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  carried  captive  to 
Rome,  where  his  magnanimity  gained  him  admiration.  On 
being  led  through  the  streets,  and  observing  the  splendor 
around  him,  he  exclaimed,  "  How  is  it  possible,  that  men,  pos- 
sessed of  such  magnificence  at  home,  should  envy  Caractacus 
an  humble  cottage  in  Britain  ?  " 

12.  Claudius  had  five  wives,  of  whom  the  fourth  was  Mes- 
sali'na,  whose  very  name  is  a  proverbial  reproach,  and  who, 
having  abandoned  herself  to  the  most  shameful  profligacy,  was 
put  to  death  for  her  ci-imes.     The   emperor   then   married 


KOME.  89 

Agrippi'na,  wlio  wus  equally  practised  in  vice,  and  who 
[)oisoned  him  in  the  14th  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  64th  of 
his  age,  in  order  to  make  way  for  Nero,  her  son  hy  a  former 
husband. 

13.  Nero  liad  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  a  good  education 
under  the  philosopher  Seji'eca,  and  at  the  commencement  of 
his  reign,  he  pursued  an  excellent  plan  of  government,  which 
was  laid  down  hy  Seneca  and  Burrhus,  (the  latter  of  whom 
was  prefect  of  the  pretorian  guard,)  and  which  held  out  the 
prospect  of  better  times ;  but  he  soon  got  rid  of  his  counsel- 
lors, abandoned  himself  to  rioting  and  licentiousness,  gained  a 
notoriety  for  j)rofligacy  and  cruelty  above  that  of  even  all  his 
[iredecessors,  and  rendered  his  name  proverbial,  in  all  succeed- 
ing ages,  as  a  detestable  tyrant.  Among  the  numerous  victims, 
who  suffered  death  by  his  cruelty,  were  his  mother  Agrippi'na^ 
his  wives  Octa'via  and  Poppce'a,  Seneca  and  Burrhus,  also  Lu- 
can,  the  poet. 

14.  He  is  charged  with  having  caused  the  city  of  Rome  to 
be  set  on  fire,  in  mere  wantonness,  that  it  might  exhibit  the 
rr'prcscntalion  of  the  burning  of  Troy  ;  and  he  stood  upon  a 
high  tower  that  he  might  enjoy  the  scene.  The  conflagration 
continued  eight  or  nine  days,  and  a  great  part  of  the  city  was 
burnt  to  ashes.  In  order  to  avert  from  himself  the  public 
odium  of  the  crime,  he  charged  it  upon  the  Chrislicms,  who 
had  now  become  numerous  in  Rome,  and  commenced  against 
them  a  inost  dreadful  persecution,  in  which  .SV.  Paul  was 
beheaded. 

15.  Nero,  who  rendered  himself  no  less  contemptible  by  his 
follies  and  extravagances  than  hateful  by  his  crimes,  was  too 
odious  a  monster  to  be  long  endured.  A  conspiracj'',  headed 
by  Viiuhx  in  Gaul,  and  Galha  in  Spain,  hurled  him,  at  length, 
from  the  throne.  Galba,  in  a  speech,  recapitulating  his  crimes, 
said  :  "  What  enormity  has  been  too  great  for  him  .'  Is  he  not 
stained  with  the  blood  of  his  father,  his  mother,  his  wife,  his 
preceptors,  of  all  those  who,  in  the  senate,  the  city,  or  the 
provinces,  were  distinguished  by  birth,  riches,  courage,  or  vir- 
tue .'  The  blood  of  thcscy  innocent  victims  cries  for  vengeance  ; 
and  since  we  are  possessed  of  arms,  and  of  power  of  using 
them,  let  us  disdain  to  obey,  not  a  prince,  but  an  incendiary,  a 
parricide,  a  singer,  and  an  actor."  The  senate  having  passed 
sentence  against  him,  he  avoided  falling  into  their  hands  by  a 
voluntary  death,  in  the  14th  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  32d  of 
his  age. 

16.  After  the  death  of  Nero,  Galha  was  declared  emperor, 
ijoth  by  the  senate  and  by  the  legions  under  his  command, 
rie  was  esteemed  a  man  of  courage,  talents,  and  virtue,  and 

8* 


90  ROME. 

had  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  the  command  of  armies  in 
the  provinces ;  but  he  was  now  in  tlie  72d  year  of  his  age,  and 
he  soon  became  unpopular  by  his  severity  and  parsimony,  and 
by  the  abuses  practised  by  his  favorites.  He  adopted  for  his 
successor  the  virtuous  Piso,  a  measure  which  gave  offence  to 
Otho,  his  former  favorite,  who  excited  a  rebelUon  against  him, 
and  caused  the  death  both  of  the  emperor  and  of  Piso,  after  a 
reign  of  only  seven  months.  Tacitus  says  of  liim,  that,  "  Had 
he  never  ascended  the  throne,  he  would  have  been  thought,  by 
all,  capable  of  reigning."- 

17.  Otho  was  then  proclaimed  emperor ;  but  he  found  a 
formidable  rival  in  Vitel'lius,  by  whose  lieutenants  he  was  de- 
feated, and  he  slew  himself  after  a  reign  of  95  days.  Vitel- 
lius,  being  saluted  as  emperor,  is  said  to  have  proposed  Nero 
for  his  model,  and  rendered  himself  odious  to  the  people  by" 
his  tyranny  and  profligacy.  Vespa'sian,  who  was  now  at  the 
head  of  the  Roman  army  in  Egypt,  was  proclaimed  emperor 
by  his  troops ;  Rome  was  taken  by  one  of  his  generals,  and 
Vitellius  was  assassinated  before  he  had  completed  the  first 
year  of  his  reign. 

18.  Vespa'sian  was  declared  emperor  by  the  unanimous 
consent  of  the  senate  and  the  army ;  and  on  his  arrival  at 
Rome,  he  was  received  with  the  greatest  joy.  He  had  risen 
by  his  merit  from  a  mean  origin ;  was  distinguished  for  his 
atfability,  clemency,  and  firmness ;  and  he  reigned  with  high 
popularity  for  ten  years,  promoting  the  welfare  of  his  subjects. 
He  restored  order,  built  the  celebrated  amphitheatre  or  Col- 
iseum, whose  ruins  still  attest  its  grandeur,  cherished  the  arts, 
and  patronized  learned  men,  among  whom  were  Josephus, 
the  Jewish  historian,  Quintilian,  the  orator,  and  Pliny,  the 
naturalist. 

19.  The  reign  of  Vespasian  is  memorable  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalevi,  which  was  effected  by  his  son  Titus,  after 
a  tremendous  siege  of  six  months,  the  city  being  taken  and 
razed  to  the  ground,  so  that,  according  to  the  prediction  of  our 
Savior,  "  not  one  stone  remained  upon  another."  The  num- 
ber that  perished  in  this  siege,  according  to  Josephus,  amounted 
to  upwards  of  a  million,  and  the  captives  to  almost  a  hundred 
thousand.  The  wretched  survivors  were  banished,  sold,  and 
driven  into  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  have  continued  to 
this  time  a  dispersed,  yet  a  distinct  people,  and  a  monument 
of  the  truth  of  Revelation. 

20.  Vespasian  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Titus,  who  ex- 
hibited such  an  example  of  justice,  humanity,  and  generosity, 
that  he  obtained  the  enviable  appellation  of  the  "  Delight  of 
mankind.''''     Recollecting,  one  evening,  that  he  had  done  no 


ROME.  91 

beneficent  act  during  that  day,  lie  made  the  celebrated  excla- 
mation, "  My  friends,  I  have  lost  a  day  !  "  During  his  reign 
happened  that  dreadful  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which  over- 
whelmed the  cities  of  Hercula'neiim  and  Po7npc'ii,  and  caused 
the  death  of  Pliny,  the  naturalist.  Titus  died  in  the  3d  year 
of  his  reign,  and  the  41st  of  his  age,  not  without  suspicion  x)f 
being  poisoned  by  his  brother  Domi'tian,  who  succeeded  him 
.  21.  Domif.ian  was  another  monster  of  profligacy  and  cru- 
elty. He  caused  himself  to  bo  worshipped  as  a  god  ;  put  to 
death  the  most  illustrious  Romans,  and  took  pleasure  in  wit- 
nessing the  torture  of  his  victims.  He  banished  the  philos- 
ophers from  Rome,  and  raised  a  dreadful  persecution  against 
the  Christians.  When  secluded  from  the  world,  he  passed  his 
time  in  vicious  and  degrading  amusements.  He  was  so  much 
in  the  habit  of  catching  flies,  and  piercing  them  through  with 
a  bodkin,  that  one  of  his  servants,  being  asked  if  any  one  was 
with  the  emperor,  answered,  "  Not  even  a  fly." 

22.  After  a  reign  of  15  years,  Domitian  was  assassinated 
at  the  instigation  of  his  wife,  who  had  discovered  that  he  had 
put  her  name  on  the  list  of  those  whom  he  designed  to  destroy. 
This  reign  was  signalized  by  the  successes  of  the  Romans  in 
Britain,  under  the  command  oH  Agric.'oIa,a  great  general,  who 
had  been  sent  into  that  country  by  Vespasian,  and  who  made 
an  entire  conquest  of  all  the  southern  part  of  the  island. 

23.  Domitian  was  the  last  of  those  emperors  who  are  called 
the  Tivelve  Ccrsars,  Julius  Cccsar,  the  dictator,  being  consid- 
ered the  first ;  though  Augustus  was  the  first  that  is  generally 
styled  emperor,  and  Nero  was,  in  reality,  the  last  emperor  of 
the  family  of  Augustus. 


SECTION   IX. 

Nerva  :   Trajan  :  Adrian  :  Antoninus  Pius  :  Marcus  Aurelius 
Antoninus.  —  From  A.  D.  %Q  to  180. 

1.  After  the  death  of  Domitian,  the  senate  elected  for  hig 
successor  Nerca,  who  was  65  years  old,  and  venerable  for  his 
virtues,  as  well  as  for  his  age.  He  was  distinguished  for  clem- 
ency, but  did  not  possess  energy  sufficient  to  repress  the  dis- 
orders of  the  empire.  Having  adopted  Trajan  for  his  succes- 
sor, he  died  after  a  reign  of  16  months. 

2.  Trajan,  who  was  a  native  of  Seville,  in  Spain,  is  esteem- 
ed the  greatest  and  most  powerful,  and  one  of  the  most  virtu- 
ous, of  the  Roman  emperors.     He  has  been  highly  commended 


92  ROMH. 

for  his  affability,  his  simplicity  of"  manners,  his  clemency,  and 
munificence.  He  was  llie  greatest  general  of  l>is  age,  pos- 
sessed an  ardent  spirit  of  enterprise,  accustomed  himself  to 
hardship,  and,  even  after  he  ascended  the  throne,  marched  on 
foot,  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  over  extensive  regions.  On 
presenting  tlie  sword  to  the  pretorian  prefect,  he  gave  this  re- 
markable charge  :  "  Make  use  of  it  for  me,  if  I  do  my  duty  ; 
if  I  do  not,  against  me."  The  senate  conferred  on  him  the 
surname  of  Optimus,  or  Best ;  and  for  more  than  200  years, 
that  body  was  accustomed  to  hail  every  new  emperor  with  the 
exclamation,  "  Reign  fortunately,  as  Augustus  ;  virtuously,  as 
Trajan." 

3.  During  the  reign  of  Trajan,  the  boundaries  of  the  empire 
were  more  extensive  than  either  before  or  afterwards.  He 
subdued  the  Dacians,  conquei'ed  the  ParfJiia.ns,  and  brought 
under  subjection  Assyria,,  Mesopotamia,  and  Aralia  Felix. 
In  commemoration  of  his  victories  over  the  Dacians,  he  erect- 
ed a  pillar,  which  bears  his  name,  and  which  still  remains  in 
Rome,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  ancient  monuments  in  the 
city. 

4.  He  was  a  munificent  patron  of  literature,  and  in  his  reign 
flourished  Pliny  the  Younger,  Juvenal,  and  Plutarch.  He 
died,  greatly  lamented  by  his  subjects,  in  the  20th  year  of  his 
reign,  and  tlie  63d  of  his  age.  The  character  of  this  great 
prince  was  tarnished  by  a  want  of  equity  with  regard  to  the 
Christians,  whom  he  suffered  to  be  persecuted. 

5.  Trajan  was  succeeded  by  A'drian,  his  nepliew,  who  was 
an  able  sovereign,  generally  beneficent  and  equitable  in  his 
government ;  distinguished  also  for  his  eloquence  and  his  taste 
in  the  liberal  arts  ;  but  he  was,  nevertheless,  chargeable  with 
cruelty  and  licentiousness.  Judging  the  limits  of  tlie  empire  too 
extensive,  he  abandoned  the  conquests  of  Trajan,  declined 
war,  devoted  himself  to  the  arts  of  peace,  and  promoted  the 
welfare  of  liis  subjects.  He  undertook  to  visit,  in  person,  ail 
the  provinces  of  the  empire,  in  wliich  expedition  he  spent  13 
years.  In  his  progress,  he  reformed  abuses,  relieved  his  siil)- 
jects  from  burdens,  and  rebuilt  cities.  While  in  Britain,  he 
erected  a  turf  wall  or  rampart  across  the  island,  from  Carlisle 
to  Newcastle,  in  order  lo  prevent  the  incursions  of  the  Picf.s. 

6.  He  rebuilt  Jerusalem,  and  changed  its  name  to  M'lia 
Capiloli'na.  The  Jews,  incensed  at  the  privileges  which  the 
pagan  worshippers  enjoyed  in  the  new  city,  made  a  great 
slaughter  of  the  Romans  and  Christians  residing  in  Judea  ;  in 
consequence  of  which,  the  emperor  sent  against  them  a  pow- 
erful army,  which  destroyed  upwards  of  1,000  of  their  best 
towns,  and  slew  nearly  600,000  men.     Adrian  adopted  for  his 


ROME.  93 

successor  Titus  Antoni'jius,  and  died  in  the  22d  year  of  his 
reign,  and  the  62d  of  his  age. 

7.  Titus  Anfonirm^,  more  commonly  called  Antoninus 
Pius,  had  a  reign  of  23  years,  which  was  marked  by  few 
striking  events  ;  but  it  will  ever  be  distinguished  in  the  Roman 
annals  for  the  public  and  private  virtues  wliich  exalted  his 
character.  It  was  his  favorite  maxim,  that  "  he  would  rather 
save  the  life  of  one  citizen,  than  to  put  to  death  a  thousand  en- 
emies." 

8.  This  excellent  sovereign  adopted  for  his  successor  his 
son-in-law,  Marcus  Aure'lius  Ant.oni'nvs,  surnamed  the  Phi- 
losopher. He  is  esteemed  the  best  model  of  pagan  virtue 
among  the  Roman  emperors  ;  and  "  appeared,"  says  an  an- 
cient author,  "  like  some  benevolent  deity,  diffusing  around 
him  universal  peace  and  happiness."  He  was  attached,  both 
by  nature  and  education,  to  the  Stoic  philosophy,  which  he 
admirably  exemplified  in  his  life,  as  well  as  illustrated  in  his 
work,  entitled  "  Meditations^ 

9.  Distinguished  as  the  two  Antonines  were  for  justice  and 
humanity,  yet  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  was  permitted, 
in  some  degree,  during  their  reigns.  It  was  to  the  former  of 
the  two  that  Justin  Martyr  presented  his  first  "  Apology  for 
Christianity "  ;  and  the  Roman  army  under  the  latter  expe- 
rienced, by  means  of  a  thunder-storm,  a  remarkable  deliver- 
ance, which  has  been  represented  by  many  as  miraculous,  and 
which  gave  to  a  legion  of  Christians,  then  serving  under  Aure- 
lius,  the  name  of  the  Thundering  Legion.  —  The  name  of  the 
wife  of  each  of  these  emperors  was  Fausti'na,  and  both  of 
them  were  noted  as  women  of  the  most  abandoned  character. 

10.  Aurelius  died  in  the  19th  year  of  his  reign,  and  the 
59th  of  his  age.  He  was  the  last  of  the  sovereigns  styled 
"  The  five  good  emperors  "  ;  and  the  glory  and  prosperity  of 
the  Roman  people  seemed  to  perish  with  him.  From  this 
time,  we  behold  a  succession  of  sovereigns,  who,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, were  either  weak  or  vicious  ;  an  empire  grown  too 
large,  sinking  by  its  own  weight,  surrounded  by  barbarous  and 
successful  enemies  without,  and  torn  by  ambitious  and  cruel 
factions  within  ;  the  principles  of  the  times  wholly  corrupted 
and  patriotism,  virtue,  and  literature  gradually  becoming  al' 
most  extinct. 


M  ROME. 

SECTION  X. 
From  Commodus  to  Constantine.  —  From  A.  D.  180  io  306. 

1.  Aurelius  was  succeeded  by  liis  most  unworthy  son  Com- 
modus, who  resembled  his  mother  Faustina,  and  equalled  even 
Nero  in  profligacy  and  cruelty.  He  was  assassinated  in  tlie 
13th  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  32d  of  his  age  ;  and  Per'Lir.ax, 
a  man  of  mean  birth,  who  had  risen  by  his  merit,  and  who, 
from  the  various  conditions  through  which  he  passed,  was 
styled  "  the  tennis-ball  of  fortune,"  was  proclaimed  his  suc- 
cessor by  the  pretorian  guards.  But  the  new  emperor,  giving 
offence  by  his  severity  in  correcting  abuses,  was,  after  a  reign 
of  three  months,  put  to  death  by  the  same  hands  that  had 
placed  him  on  the  throne. 

2.  The  empire  was  now  put  up  to  sale  by  the  soldiers,  and 
was  purchased  by  Did'ius  Julia'nus,  who  was  murdered  in  the 
fifth  month  of  his  reign,  by  order  of  Septim'ius  Seve'rus,  who 
was  proclaimed  en.peror  in  his  stead.  He  had  two  competitors 
for  the  empire,  Niger  and  Albl'nus,  both  of  whom  were  en- 
tir  ''T  defeated.  Severus  was  an  able  warrior,  and  governed 
,viin  ability,  yet  with  despotic  rigor.  He  made  an  expedition 
into  Britain,  and  built  a  stone  wall  extending  from  Solway  fritli 
to  the  German  ocean,  and  nearly  parallel  to  that  of  Adrian. 
He' died  at  York,  in  the  18th  year  of  his  reign. 

3.  Seve'rus  left  the  empire  to  his  two  sons,  Caracal'la  and 
Geta,  the  former  of  whom  murdered  the  latter ;  and  after  a 
tyrannical  reign  of  six  years,  he  was  himself  assassinated  at 
the  instigation  of  Macri'nus,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and 
who,  after  a  reign  of  14  months,  was  supplanted  by  HeUogab'- 
alus,  who  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death. 

4.  Heliogah'alus  succeeded  to  the  throne  when  only  14 
years  old ;  yet,  at  this  early  age,  he  showed  himself  to  be  a 
monster  of  vice,  equalling  the  worst  of  his  predecessors  in  ex- 
travagance, profligacy,  and  cruelty.  He  was  murdered  in  the 
4th  year  of  his  reign ;  yet,  in  this  short  period,  he  had  ex- 
hausted all  the  resources  of  pleasure,  and  had  married  and 
divorced  six  wives. 

5.  Heliogabalus  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin,  Alexander 
Seve'rus,  a  mild,  beneficent,  and  enlightened  prince,  whose 
excellent  character  shines  the  brighter  from  the  contrast  of 
those  who  preceded  and  followed  him.  He  was  murdered  in 
the  14th  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  29rh  of  his  age,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Max'imin,  the  son  of  a  herdsman  of  Thrace,  and 
a  Goth  by  nation,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  who  wa:» 


ROxME.  95 

nearly  eight  feet  and  a  lialf  in  height,  and  not  less  remarkable 
for  the  symmetry  of  his  person,  and  his  extraordinary  strength, 
than  his  gigantic  stature  ;  and  was  also  distinguished  for  his 
military  talents. 

6.  The  interval  from  the  time  of  Alexander  Seve'rus  to  that 
of  Dioclc'fian  was  filled  by  16  reigns ;  those  of  Max'imin, 
Max'imus  ajid  Ralbi'nus,  Gor'ilian,  Philip,  De'cius,  Gallus, 
vEmilia'nus,  Valc'rian,  Gallie'nus,  Clau'dius,  Aure'Iian,  Tac'- 
itus,  Flo'rian,  Probus,  Carus,  Cari'nus,  and  Numc'rian ;  a 
[jcriod  of  49  years,  which  furnishes  little  that  is  pleasing  or 
interesting.  The  short  reigns  of  most  of  these  emperors  were 
alike  disastrous  to  themselves  and  their' subjects ;  and  all  of 
them,  except  Claudius  and  Tacitus,  were  cut  off  by  a  violent 
death. 

7.  The  emperor  Vale'rian,  in  a  war  with  Sapor,  king  of 
Persia,  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner.  Sapor  treated  his 
captive  with  the  greatest  indignity  and  cruelly :  he  used  him 
as  a  footstool  in  mounting  liis  horse ;  afterwards  ordered  his 
eyes  to  be  plucked  out,  and  finally  caused  him  to  be  flayed 
alive. 

8.  The  reign  of  Aure'Iian,  which  lasted  only  five  years, 
was  noted  for  military  achievements.  He  was  distinguished 
for  great  talents,  as  well  as  great  severity,  as  a  general ;  and 
for  courage  and  promptitude,  has*  been  compared  with  Julius 
Caesar.  He  defeated  the  Goths  and  Germans,  who  had  begun 
to  harass  the  Romans  ;  but  his  most  renowned  victory  was  that 
over  Zeno'bia,  the  famous  queen  of  Palniy'ra,  who  was  taken 
captive ;  and  her  secretary  Longi'nus,  the  celebrated  critic, 
was  slain,  by  order  of  the  conqueror.  On  his  return  to  Rome, 
Aurelian  was  honored  with  one  of  the  most  splendid  triumphs 
ever  witnessed  in  that  city.  Zenobia  was  reserved  to  grace 
this  grand  show,  bound  in  chains  of  gold,  and  overloaded  with 
a  profusion  of  pearls  and  diamonds. 

9.  DiocleJtian,  who  was  the  son  of  a  Dalmatian  slave,  rose 
by  his  merit  from  the  rank  of  a  common  soldier  to  that  of  a 
great  commander,  and,  on  the  death  of  Cari'nus  and  Nume'- 
rian,  was  acknowledge(J  emperor.  He  began  his  reign  in  284, 
and  two  years  afterwards  associated  with  himself  in  the 
government  his  friend  Maxim'ian  ;  and  in  "292,  they  took  two 
other  colleagues,  Gale'rius  and  Conslan'tius,  each  bearing  the 
title  of  Ccesar.  The  empire  was  now  divided  into  four  parts, 
under  the  government  of  two  emperors  and  two  Casars,  each 
being  nominally  supreme  ;  but,  in  reality,  under  the  direction 
of  the  superior  talents  of  Diocletian. 

10.  In  this  reign  liappcncd  the  10th  and  last  great  persecu- 
tion against  the  Christians,  which  raged  for  several  years,     it 


0^  ROME. 

was  more  bloody  than  any  that  had  preceded  it,  and  was  so 
nearly  fatal,  that  the  tyrants  boasted  that  they  had  extinguished 
the  Christian  name. 

11.  Diocletian,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  experienced 
a  series  of  calamities,  and  he  and  his  colleague  Maxim'ian, 
resigned  the  government  into  the  hands  of  the  two  Cajsars. 
He  then  retired  to  his  native  country,  Dalrnatia,  and  built  a 
magnificent  palace  near  the  town  of  Salo'na,  where  he  lived 
eight  or  nine  years,  and  amused  himself  in  cultivating  his 
garden.  He  declared  that  he  here  enjoyed  more  happiness 
than  when  adorned  with  the  imperial  purple ;  and  was  often 
heard  to  exclaim,  "  Now  it  is  that  I  live  ;  now  I  see  the  beauty 
of  the  sun  !  " 


SECTION   XI. 

From  the  Accession  of  Constant  hie  to  the  Extinction  of  the 
Western  Empire.  —  Frofn  A.  D.  306  to  476. 

1.  Constantius  died  at  York,  in  Britain,  having  appointed  his 
son  Constantine,  his  successor  ;  Galerius  also  died  four  years 
after ;  and  Co7istantine,  surnamed  the  Great,  having  defeated 
all  his  competitors,  became  sole  master  of  the  empire.  One 
of  the  principal  competitors  for  the  crown  was  Maxen'tin-s ; 
and  historians  relate  that  when  Constantino  was  marching  at 
the  head  of  his  army  against  this  rival,  he  beheld  in  the 
heavens  a  luminous  cross,  with  an  inscription  in  Greek,  Tovrm 
viKa,  '■'•  Conquer  hi/  this'''';  and  that,  in  consequence  of  this 
vision  and  of  the  success  which  attended  his  arms,  he  embraced 
Christianity. 

2.  But  whatever  may  have  been  the  circumstance  which 
first  attracted  the  favorable  notice  of  Constantino,  he  became 
the  avowed  friend  and  supporter  of  Christianity,  and  has  the 
honor  of  being  enrolled  as  the  first  Christian  emperor.  He 
put  an  end  to  the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  and  also  to 
the  combats  of  gladiators,  and  other  barbarous  exhibitions. 
His  reign  forms  an  important  era  in  ecclesiastical  history,  as 
the  Roman  government  now  became  the  professed  protector 
of  the  religion  which  it  had  repeatedly  and  cruelly  persecuted. 

3.  An  important  event  in  the  reign  of  Constantino,  was  the 
removal  of  the  seat  of  empire  from  Ro7ne  to  Byzan'tium., 
which  latter  city,  from  him,  took  the  name  of  Constantinople. 
The  empire  had  long  been  verging  to  ruin,  and  this  measure 
is  thought  to  have  hastened  its  downfall.  Constantino  died  in 
the  31st  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  63d  of  his  age.      His 


ROME.  97 

character  has  been  variously  represented  by  dificrent  writers. 
**  It  is  manifest,"  says  Miiller,  "  that  the  genius  of  Constan- 
tino, fertile,  if  not  happy,  at  least  in  specious  ideas,  gave  a 
new  direction  to  the  course  of  human  affairs.  He  maintained 
peace  by  the  reputation  of  his  arms  ;  and  his  name,  alternate- 
ly too  much  exalted  and  unjustly  degraded  by  prejudiced  his- 
torians, deserves  an  honorable  mention  among  the  monarchs 
of  the  Roman  world." 

4.  Constantino  divided  the  empire  between  his  three  sons, 
Con'stanline  IL^  Cun'stans^  and  Constan'tius  11. ,  and  two 
nephews.  In  the  space  of  a  few  years,  all  these  princes  were 
slain,  except  Constanfius,  the  youngest  of  the  sons,  who  re- 
mained sole  master  of  the  empire.  He  had  a  weak  and  un- 
fortunate reign  of  24  years,  during  which  the  empire  was 
harassed  and  weakened  by  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians  from 
the  north,  and  the  incursions  of  the  Persians  on  the  eastern 
provinces. 

5.  Constantius  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin  Jidicai,  sur- 
iiamed  the  Apostate,  because,  after  having  received  a  Chris- 
tian education,  he  relapsed  into  paganism.  He  was  possessed 
of  considerable  talents  and  learning,  and  of  many  heroic  qual- 
ities ;  but  was  the  slave  of  the  most  bigoted  superstition.  He 
restored  the  pagan  worship,  and  attempted  to  suppress  Chris- 
tianity. He  undertook  to  reassemble  the  Jews,  and  rebuild 
their  temple  ;  but  his  design  is  stated,  by  a  number  of  ancient 
writers,  to  have  been  miraculously  defeated  by  the  eruption  of 
fire-balls  from  the  ground.  Julian  was  killed  in  a  war  with 
the  Persians,  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  32d  of 
his  age. 

6.  Julian  was  succeeded  by  Jo'inan,  who  restored  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  and  recalled  Alhanasius,  who  had  been  banished 
by  Julian  ;  but  he  died  after  a  short  reign  of  seven  months.  Val- 
entin'ian,  who  was  then  chosen  emperor,  associated  with  him- 
self his  brother  Valens,  giving  him  the  eastern  provinces, 
which  occasioned  the  final  separation  of  the  empire  into  East- 
ern and  Western.  The  barbarians  continued  to  make  inroads 
into  different  parts  of  the  empire,  and  the  Goths  now  obtained 
a  settlement  in  Thrace. 

7.  The  successor  of  Valentinian  was  his  son  Gra'tian,  who, 
on  the  death  of  Valens,  associated  with  himself  Theodo'shis, 
afterwards  surnamed  the  Great.  After  the  death  of  Gi'atian., 
and  his  brother  Valentinian  II.,  Theodosius  became  sole  mas- 
ter of  the  empire.  His  reign  was  signalized  by  the  complete 
establishment  of  Christianity,  and  the  downfall  of  paganism  in 
the  Roman  dominions.  Being  an  able  and  politic  sovereign, 
he  repelled  the  encroachments  of  the  barbarians,  and  by  his 

9 


^  ROME. 

wise  administration,  strengthenefl,  in  some  measure,  the  em. 
pire,  which  had,  for  a  considerable  time,  been  hastening  to  its 
lall.  He  was  the  last  sovereign  who  presided  over  both  divis- 
ions of  the  empire  ;  and,  after  a  reign  of  16  years,  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  sons,  Hono'rius  in  the  West^  and  Arca'dius 
in  the  East. 

8.  Through  the  weakness  of  Ilonorius  and  Arcadius,  the 
barbarians  were  enabled  to  establish  and  strengthen  themselves 
in  tlieir  temtories.  The  Goths,  under  the  conduct  of  the  la- 
mous  AJ'aric,  spread  their  devastations  to  the  very  walls  of 
Constantinople,  and  filled  all  Greece  with  the  terror  of  their 
arms.  Alaric  then  penetrated  into  Italy,  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army  ;  but  he  was  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the  Romans,  un- 
der Stil'icho.  After  the  death  of  Stilicho,  Alaric  invaded  the 
country  a  second  time,  and  being  joined  by  300,000  auxilia- 
ries, he  took  and  pillaged  several  cities  of  Italy,  and  at  length 
pitched  his  camp  before  the  walls  of  Rome.  This  great  city, 
which  had  long  sat  as  mistress  of  the  world,  and  had  for  ages 
enriched  herself  with  the  spoils  of  vanquished  nations,  was 
now  reduced  to  the  greatest  extremities  by  famine  and  pesti- 
lence. 

9.  After  the  famine  had  made  the  most  dreadful  ravages, 
Alaric  entered  Rome,  deprived  Honorius  of  the  imperial  dig- 
nity, and  gave  up  the  city  to  be  plundered  by  his  soldiers. 
"  All  the  riches  of  the  world,"  said  Alaric  in  addressing  his 
army,  "  are  here  concentrated  :  to  you  I  abandon  them  :  but 
I  command  you  to  spill  the  blood  of  none  but  those  whom  you 
find  in  arms  ;  and  to  spare  such  as  take  refuge  in  the  church- 
es." The  fearful  devastation  continued  for  six  days,  during 
which,  these  fierce  barbarians  indulged  their  cruelty  and  feroc- 
ity without  pity  or  restraint. 

10.  Alaric  died  immediately  after  this  conquest ;  and  the 
Goths,  having  elected  in  his  stead  Ataul'phus,  for  their  lead- 
er, took  possession  of  the  southern  part  of  Gaul,  and  likewise 
passed  over  the  mountains,  and  founded  their  kingdom  in 
Spain. 

11.  A  few  years  after  the  sacking  of  Rome  by  Alaric, 
commenced  the  sanguinary  ravages  of  the  Huns,  a  barbarous 
people  of  Scythian  origin,  under  the  command  of  their  fero- 
cious king  At'tila,  styled  the  Scourge  of  God.  Having  rav- 
aged the  Eastern  Empire,  he  invaded  Gaul  with  an  army  of 
500,000  men  ;  and,  on  the  plains  of  Chalons,  was  defeated 
by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Romans,  under  JE'tius  (who  is 
styled  by  Gibbon  "  the  last  of  the  Romans  "),  and  the  Goths, 
under  Theod'oric,  with  a  loss,  according  to  the  lowest  ac- 
counts, of  160,000  men.      Notwithstanding  this  defeat,  he 


ROME.  99 

Boon  after  invaded  Italy,  extended  his  ravages  to  the  gates  of 
Rome,  and  compelled  Valentinian  III.  to  purchase  a  peace, 
by  an  immense  dowry  to  be  given  to  him  with  the  emperor's 
sister  Ilono'ria.  But  the  death  of  Attila  soon  followed,  and 
by  this  event  the  earth  was  delivered  from  a  warrior  who  had 
never  suffered  Europe  to  enjoy  any  repose,  and  who  had  never 
enjoyed  any  himself. 

iZ.  Valentinian  III.  being  assassinated  at  the  instigation  of 
Petro'nius  Max'imus,  who  was  saluted  emperor,  the  empress 
Eudox'ia  invited  Gen'seric,  king  of  the  Vmidals,  to  take  ven- 
geance on  the  murderer  of  her  husband.  He  eagerly  em- 
braced the  opportunity  of  disguising  his  rapacious  designs, 
landed  in  Italy  with  a  numerous  army  of  Moors  and  Vandals, 
took  the  city  of  Rome,  and  gave  it  up  to  his  soldiers  to  be  pil- 
laged, with  implacable  fury,  for  11  days  ;  during  which  those 
monuments  of  art  and  literature,  which  Alaric  had  spared, 
were  ransacked  and  destroyed. 

13.  From  the  death  of  Valentinian  III.,  the  Western  Empire 
dragged  on  a  precarious  and  lingering  existence,  under  nine 
successive  emperors,  for  21  years,  till  it  was  finally  terminat- 
ed, in  476,  by  the  resignation  of  the  last  emperor,  Rom'ulus 
Augus'tulus,  to  Odoa'cer,  the  chief  of  the  Her'uli,  who  assumed 
the  title  of  king  of  Italy  ;  and  from  this  period  the  history  of 
Rome  merges  into  that  of  Italy. 

14.  "  Such  was  the  end  of  this  great  empire,  that  had  con- 
quered the  world  with  its  arms,  and  instructed  mankind  with 
its  wisdom  ;  that  had  risen  by  temperance,  and  that  fell  by 
luxury  ;  that  had  been  established  by  a  spirit  of  patriotism, 
and  that  sunk  into  ruin  when  the  empire  had  become  so  ex- 
tensive that  the  title  tif  a  Roman  citizen  was  but  an  empty 
name." 


SECTION  XII. 

77te  Kingdom  of  the  IleruU,  of  the  Goths,  and  of  the  Lorn- 
hards  in  Italy.  —  The  Eastern  Empire,  to  its  Extinction 
in  1453. 

1.  The  kingdom  of  the  Her'idi,  m  Italy,  continued  only 
about  17  years  ;  at  the  end  of  which  period,  Theod'oric  the 
Great,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  or  Eastern  Goths,  defeated 
and  slew  Odoacer,  made  himself  master  of  all  Italy,  was  ac- 
knowledged sovereign  of  the  country,  and  fixed  his  residence 
at  Raven'na.     Theod'otus,  the  third  Gothic  king  of  Italy,  was 


100  ROME. 

defeated  and  slain  by  BeKsa'rius,  the  general  of  Justinian, 
who  made  himself  master  of  Rome.  But  the  Ostrogoths, 
under  the  brave  Tot'iJa,  recovered  their  authority,  but  were, 
in  turn,  utterly  defeated,  after  their  dominion  in  Italy  had 
lasted  64  years,  by  Nurses,  who  succeeded  Belisarius,  and 
who  governed  Italy  13  years. 

2.  Nurses  having  been  recalled  by  Justin  II.,  the  successor 
of  Justinian,  invited  Alboin,  king  of  the  Lomhurds,  or  Lo7i'- 
gohurds,  to  avenge  his  injury.  Alboin  overran  and  subdued 
the  country,  was  proclaimed  king,  and  made  Pavia  the  capital 
of  his  dominions.  The  kingdom  of  the  Lombards,  in  Italy, 
during  the  successive  reigns  of  22  kings,  lasted  206  years,  til! 
774,  when  Deside'rius,  or  Didier,  was  defeated  by  Churle- 
mugne,  and  Italy  was  afterwards  incorporated  into  the  new 
Empire  of  the  West.  The  period  which  elapsed  from  the 
death  of  Theodosius  the  Greut  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Lombards  in  Italy,  was  one  of  the  most  calamitous  and  dis- 
tressing in  the  history  of  the  world. 

3.  The  Goths  were  originally  from  Scundina'via,  and  were 
distinguished  for  hospitality  and  heroic  virtues.  At  the  time 
of  their  taking  Rome,  under  Alaric,  they  had  partially  em- 
braced Christianity.  The  Ostrrsoths  and  VisigotJis,  or  Eust- 
em  Goths  and  Western  Goths,  were  so  called  from  their  situa- 
tion. The  Her'uU  were  of  Gothic  origin ;  and  the  Lombards 
were  originally  either  from  Scandinavia  or  the  north  of 
Germany. 

4.  The  Eastern  Empire,  called  also  the  Greek  Empire,  and 
the  Empire  of  Constantinople,  although  it  suffered  from  the 
ravages  of  the  barbarous  nations  who  overthrew  the  Western 
Empire,  yet  it  resisted  their  attacks,  and  subsisted  more  than 
11  centuries,  from  the  time  of  its  foundation  by  Constantino. 
This  long  period  furnishes  but  few  events  which  are  particu- 
larly interesting. 

5.  This  empire  was  in  the  meridian  of  its  glory  in  the  6th 
century,  during  the  long  reign  of  Justin'iun,  sometimes  styled 
the  Greut,  who  published  a  celebrated  code  of  luws,  prepared 
by  Tribo'nian,  a  great  lawyer  of  that  age.  This  code  is 
r3garded  as  the  foundation  of  the  jurisprudence  of  modern 
Europe. 

6.  During  the  reign  of  Justinian,  Belisurius  and  Nurses, 
the  two  most  renowned  generals  of  the  age,  defended  the  em- 
pire against  the  Persians,  recovered  Africa  from  the  Vandals, 
and  Italy  from  the  Goths,  and  obtained  several  great  victories 
over  these  fierce  enemies.  Justinian  built  the  church  of  St. 
Sophia,  which  is  now  a  Mahometan  mosque.     He  and  some 


ROME.  101 

of  his  successors  patronized  the  arts  and  learning,  and  en- 
deavored to  revive  a  taste  for  literature  and  science  in  the 
dark  ages ;  yet  the  majority  of  these  emperors  were  weak 
sovereigns,  debased  by  luxury  and  vice. 

7.  After  the  removal  of  the  scat  of  empire,  there  arose  a 
nvalship  between  the  pope  or  bishop  of  Rome,  and  the  patri- 
ai'ch  of  Constantinople,  each  contending  for  the  precedence. 
This  controversy,  which  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the 
history  of  the  times,  finally  terminated  in  the  entire  separation 
of  the  Western  or  Romati,  and  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Churches. 

8.  In  1204,  the  crusaders  took  and  pillaged  Constantinople, 
and  proclaimed  their  leader,  Balchvin,  count  of  Flanders, 
sovereign  of  the  empire.  They  kept  possession  of  the  throne 
till  1261,  under  the  reign  of  five  French  or  Latin  emperors. 
During  this  period,  the  Greek  emperors  made  Nice  the  seat  of 
their  power. 

9.  In  1453,  during  the  reign  of  Consianline  XII.,  Ma'homet 
II.,  at  the  head  of  300,000  Turks,  besieged  and  took  Constanti- 
nople, and  gave  up  the  city  to  be  plundered  by  his  soldiers. 
He  put  a  final  end  to  the  Eastern  Empire ;  and  since  that 
event,  Constantinople  has  continued  the  seat  of  the  Turkish 
government. 


SECTION  XIII. 

Roman  Antiquities. 

1.  Some  account  of  the  origin  and  nature  of  most  of  the 
principal  offices,  or  magistracies,  in  the  Roman  government, 
and  also  of  the  division  of  the  inhabitants,  has  already  been 
given. 

2.  The  whole  structure  of  the  constitution  under  the  mon- 
archy has,  upon  the  authority  of  Dionysius  of  Halicarnas- 
sus,  been  attributed,  by  most  authors,  to  Ro7nulus,  a  leader  of 
a  band  of  shepherds  or  fugitives.  Yet  it  is  doubtless  true,  that 
the  Roman  government,  like  most  others,  was  the  gradual 
result  of  circumstances;  the  fruit  of  time,  and  of  political 
emergency. 

3.  In  addition  to  the  divisions  of  the  people,  which  are  at- 
tributed to  Romulus,  into  three  tribes,  each  of  them  consisting 
of  10  curicB,  and  into  two  orders,  patricians  and  plebeians,  fur- 
ther subdivisions  were  afterwards  made.  To  the  three  tribes, 
into  which  the  city  was  at  first  divided,  Servius  TuUius  added 
a  fourth ;  and  the  four  tribes  were  named,  from  the  quartera 

9* 


103  ROME. 

where  they  dwelt,  the  Pal'atine,  Subur'ran,  Col'latine,  and 
Es'quiline.  Augustus  afterwards  divided  the  city  into  14 
wards. 

4.  Besides  this  local  division,  Servius  distributed  the  citizens 
into  six  classes,  and  each  class  into  several  centuries,  or  por- 
tions of  citizens,  so  called,  not  because  they  consisted  of  100, 
but  because  they  were  obliged  to  furnish  and  maintain  100 
men  in  time  of  war.  The  six  classes  were  formed  according 
to  their  pi'operty ;  the  first  consisting  of  the  I'ichest  citizens, 
and  the  sixth,  whicii  was  the  most  numerous,  of  the  poorest. 
The  whole  number  of  centuries  was  193. 

5.  To  the  two  orders  of  patricians  and  plebeians,  there  was 
afterwards  added  the  equestrian  order,  composed  of  equites, 
or  knights,  who  were  chosen  under  the  direction  of  the  censor, 
and  presented  with  a  horse  at  the  public  expense,  and  a  gold 
ring.  They  were  taken  promiscuously  from  those  of  the  pa- 
tricians and  plebeians  wlio  had  attained  their  18th  year,  and 
whose  fortune  amounted  to  c£3,229. 

6.  There  were,  besides,  some  other  distinctions  among  the 
Roman  people,  as  nobiles,  the  noble,  including  those  whose 
ancestors  had  held  the  oflice  of  consul,  pretor,  censor,  or 
curule  edile,  and  who  had  a  right  to  make  images  of  them- 
selves. The  homines  novi,  or  new  men,  were  persons  who 
were  the  first  of  their  families  that  had  raised  themselves  to 
any  of  the  above  offices.  The  ignohiles,  or  ignoble,  were 
those  who  had  no  images  of  their  own,  or  of  their  ancestors. 
Those  whose  parents  had  always  been  free  were  called  in- 
gen'ui ;  and  those  who  had  been  slaves,  but  had  been  made 
free,  were  styled  liberti,  and  Ubertini. 

7.  The  Roman  citizens  were  not  merely  those  who  resided 
in  the  city  and  Roman  territory,  but  the  freedom  of  the  city 
was  granted  to  other  parts  of  Italy,  and  afterwards  to  foreign 
cities  and  towns  in  the  empire,  whose  inhabitants,  thereby,  en- 
joyed the  same  rights  as  the  Romans. 

8.  The  slaves  were  an  unfortunate  class  of  persons,  who 
performed  all  domestic  services,  and  were  employed  also  in 
various  trades  and  manufactures.  They  were  considered  as 
mere  property,  at  the  absolute  disposal  of  their  owners,  and 
were  publicly  sold  in  a  market-place.  Men  became  slaves  by 
bemg  taken  in  war,  or  by  being  born  in  a  state  of  servitude  ; 
criminals  also  were  reduced  to  slavery  by  way  of  punishment. 

9.  Kings.  The  kings  of  Rome  were  not  absolute  or  hered- 
itary, but  limited  and  elective.  They  could  neither  enact  laws, 
nor  make  war  or  peace,  without  the  concurrence  of  the  senate 
and  people.     Their  badges  were  a  white  robe,  adorned  with 


ROME.  lOd 

stripes  of  purple,  or  fringed  with  the  same  color,  a  golden 
crown,  and  an  ivory  sceptre.  They  sat  in  the  curule  chair, 
which  was  a  chair  of  state,  made  or  adorned  witli  ivory  ;  and 
they  were  attended  by  12  lictors,  carrying  fasces,  which  were 
bundles  of  rods  with  an  axe  [securis]  stuck  in  tlie  middle. 

10.  Senate.  The  senate  at  first  consisted  of  100  members, 
but  was  afterwards  increased  to  300  by  Tarquin  the  Elder  ; 
and  near  the  dissolution  of  the  republic,  it  comprised  upwards 
of  1000.  The  senators  were  at  first  nominated  by  the  kings  ; 
but  they  were  afterwards  chosen  by  the  consuls,  and  at  last  by 
the  c(;nsors.  This  body  was  usually  assembled  three  times  a 
month,  but  was  frequently  called  togethei^on  other  days  for 
special  business.  A  decree,  passed  by  a  majority  of  the  sen- 
ate, and  approved  by  the  tribunes  of  the  people,  was  termed 
senatus  consultum.  The  senators  were  styled  patres,  or  fa- 
thers, on  account  of  their  age,  gravity,  and  the  paternal  care 
they  had  of  the  state.  From  them  the  jmtricians  derived  their 
designation,  because  the  senate  was,  at  first,  composed  wholly 
of  that  order. 

11.  Magistrates  in  general.  The  magistrates  in  the  Roman 
republic  were  elective,  and  previous  to  their  election  they  were 
called  Candida' li  [candidates],  from  a  white  robe  which  they 
wore  while  soliciting  the  votes  of  the  people. 

12.  The  Roman  magistrates  were  divided  into  ordinary,  ex- 
traordinary/, and  provincial.  The  ordinary  magistrates  were 
those  who  were  created  at  stated  times,  and  were  constantly  in 
the  republic  :  the  chief  of  these  were  the  consuls,  censors, 
tribunes,  ediles,  and  questors.  The  extraordinary  were  such  as 
rose  out  of  some  public  disorder  or  emergency  :  these  were 
the  dictator  and  the  master  of  the  horse,  who  commanded  the 
cavalry  ;  the  decemvirs,  the  military  tribunes,  and  the  inter- 
rex.  The  provincial  magistrates  were  those  who  were  appoint- 
ed to  the  government  of  the  provinces.  These  were  at  first 
pretors,  afterwards  pro-consuls  and  pro-pretors,  to  whom  were 
joined  questors  and  lieutenants. 

13.  Consuls.  The  consuls  had  the  same  badges  as  the 
kmgs,  with  the  exception  of  the  crown  ;  and  their  authority 
was  nearly  equal,  except  that  it  was  limited  to  one  year.  In 
dangerous  conjunctures,  they  were  clothed  with  absolute  pow- 
er, by  a  solemn  decree,  "  that  the  consuls  take  care  the  com- 
monwealth receive  no  harm."  In  order  to  be  a  candidate  for 
the  consulship,  it  was  requisite  to  be  43  years  of  age. 

14.  Pretors.  The  pretor,  who  was  next  in  dignity  to  the 
consuls,  and  in  their  absence  supplied  their  place,  was  appoint- 
ed to  administer  justice.  He  presided  in  the  assemblies  of  the 
oeople,  convened  the  senate  upon  any  emergency,  and  exhibit- 


J04  -  ROME 

ed  certain  public  games.     There  was  at  first  but  one  pretor 
then  two,  afterwards  more. 

15.  Censors.  The  office  of  censor  was  esteemed  more  hon- 
orable than  that  of  consul,  although  attended  with  less  power. 
There  were  two  censors,  chosen  every  five  years,  and  their 
most  important  duty  was  performed  every  fifth  year,  in  taking 
the  census  of  the  people  ;  after  which  they  made  a  solemn 
hislratio7i,  or  expiatory  sacrifice,  in  the  Campus  Martins,  in 
the  name  of  the  people. 

16.  Trihunes.  The  office  of  the  tribunes  was  instituted 
merely  to  protect  the  plebeians  against  the  patricians  ;  but  the 
tribunes  gradually  ^fcquired  very  great  power. 

17.  Ediles.  The  ediles  were  so  named  from  their  office, 
which  was  the  care  of  the  public  edifices,  baths,  aqueducts, 
roads,  mai-kets,  &c.  They  were  of  two  kinds  ;  plebeian  ediles, 
who  were  assistants  to  the  tribunes  ;  and  curule  ediles,  who  su- 
perintended the  public  games. 

18.  Questors.  The  questors  were  elected  by  the  people  to 
take  care  of  the  public  revenue.  At  first  there  were  only  two, 
but  several  more  were  afterwards  added.  The  military  ques- 
tors accompanied  the  army,  and  took  care  of  the  payment  of 
the  soldiers.  The  provincial  questors  attended  the  consuls  or 
pretors  into  their  provinces,  and  received  the  taxes  and  tribute. 

19.  Assemblies  of  the  people.  An  assembly  of  the  whole 
Roman  people,  to  give  their  vote  on  any  subject,  was  called 
comi'tia.  There  were  three  kinds  of  comi'tia ;  the  curia'ta, 
the  centuria'ta,  and  the  trihu'ta.  The  comitia  were  summoned, 
by  some  magistrate,  to  pass  laws,  to  elect  magistrates,  to  de- 
cide concerning  peace  and  war,  and  to  try  persons  guilty  of 
certain  heinous  crimes. 

20.  The  comitia  ^uriata  consisted  of  an  assembly  of  the 
resident  Roman  citizens,  who  were  divided  into  30  curice,  a 
majority  of  which  determined  all  matters  of  importance  which 
were  laid  before  them. 

21.  The  comitia  centuriata  were  the  principal  assembly  of 
the  people,  in  which  they  gave  their  votes,  divided  into  the  cen- 
luries  of  their  classes,  according  to  the  census.  At  these  comi- 
tia, the  consuls,  pretors,  and  censors  were  created,  the  most 
important  laws  enacted,  cases  of  high  treason  tried,  and  war 
declared.  They  met  in  the  Campus  Martius,  and  all  Roman 
citizens,  whether  residing  in  the  city  or  country,  had  a  right  to 
be  present  and  vote  with  their  respective  centuries. 

22.  The  comitia  tributa  were  an  assembly,  in  which  the 
people  voted  divided  into  tribes,  according  to  their  regions  or 
wards.  They  were  held  to  create  inferior  magistrates,  to  elect 
certain  priests,  to  make  laws,  and  hold  trials. 


ROME.  ioa 

23.  The  comitia  continued  to  be  assembled  for  upwards  of 
700  years,  when  that  liberty  was  abridged  by  Julius  Ccesar, 
and  after  him  by  Augustus^  each  of  whom  shared  the  right  of 
creating  magistrates  with  the  people.  Tiberius  deprived  the 
people  altogether  of  the  right  of  election. 

24.  Priests.  The  ministers  of  religion  did  not  form  a  dis- 
tinct order  from  the  Roman  citizens,  but  were  chosen  from  the 
most  honorable  men  in  the  state.  Some  of  the  priests  were 
common  to  all  the  gods  ;  others  were  appropriated  to  a  partic- 
ular deity  :  of  the  former  kind,  the  most  important  were  the 
pontif'ices,  the  au'giires,  the  harus' pices.,  the  quindecim'viri, 
and  the  septem'viri ;  who  were  all  subject  to  the  pont'ifex  max'- 
imus,  or  high  priest,  chosen  by  the  people. 

25.  The  poiitijices  among  the  Romans  were  priests,  15  in 
number,  who  judged  all  causes  relating  to  religion,  regulated 
the  feasts,  sacrifices,  and  all  other  sacred  institutions,  and  in- 
spected the  lives  and  manners  of  the  inferior  priests.  The 
pontifex  rnaximus.,  or  high  priest,  was  a  person  of  great  digni- 
ty and  authority  :  he  held  his  office  for  life,  and  all  the  other 
priests  were  subject  to  him. 

26.  The  augur es.,  or  augurs,  were  15  in  number,  and  were 
of  great  authority.  It  was  their  oflice  to  foretell  future  events, 
to  interpret  dreams,  oracles,  prodigies,  &c.,  and  to  say  whether 
any  action  would  be  fortunate  or  not.  They  divined  the  future 
chiefly  in  five  ways  ;  —  from  the  appearance  of  the  heavens,  as 
thunder  and  lightning  ;  from  the  singing  or  flight  of  birds  ; 
from  the  feeding  of  chickens  ;  from  quadrupeds  ;  and  from  un- 
common accidents,  as  sneezing,  stumbling,  seeing  apparitions, 
&c.  \fec. 

27.  The  haruspices  were  priests  whose  business  it  was  to 
look  upon  the  beasts  offered  in  sacrifice,  and  by  them  to  divine 
the  success  of  any  enterprise,  and  to  obtain  omens  of  futurity. 
They  derived  their  omens  from  the  entrails  "of  beasts  ;  also 
from  the  flame,  smoke,  and  other  circumstances  attending  the 
sacrifice. 

28.  The  quindecimviri  were  15  priests  wlio  had  the  charge 
of  the  SihyUine  looks,  which  were  three  prophetic  volumes, 
said  to  have  been  procured  from  a  woman  of  extraordinary  ap- 
pearance, in  the  time  of  Tarquin  the  Proud.  They  were  sup- 
posed to  contain  the  fate  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  were  kept 
in  a  stone  chest  under  the  Capitol. 

29.  The  septcmviri  were  seven  priests  who  prepared  the 
sacred  feasts  at  the  games,  processions,  and  other  solemn  oc- 
casions ;  and  they  were  also  assistants  to  the  pontificcs. 

30.  The  priests  of  particular  deities  were  called  Flam'ines : 


106  ROML. 

the  chief  of  them  were  the  Dia'lis,  priest  of  Jupiter,  the 
Saliiy  priests  of  Mars ;  the  Lupe'vii,  priests  of  Pan ;  the  Po' 
ti'tii,  priests  of  Hercules ;  the  Gal'li,  priests  of  Cyb'ele  ;  and 
the  Vestal  Virgins^  consecrated  to  the  worship  of  Vesta. 

31.  Tlie  Romans  worshipped  their  gods  in  temples  conse- 
crated by  the  augurs ;  also  in  groves.  Their  worship  con- 
sisted chiefly  in  prayer,  vows,  and  sacrifice. 

32.  Festivals.  The  Romans  celebrated  feasts  in  January  in 
honor  of  Janus ;  in  February  were  the  Luperca'lia,  or  feasts 
of  Pan,  and  the  Fera'Ua,  in  honor  of  ghosts  or  spirits  of  the 
deceased ;  in  March,  the  Matroiia'lia,  a  feast  kept  by  the  Ro- 
man matrons,  and  the  Quinqna'lria,  in  honor  of  Minerva ;  in 
A.pril,  the  Cerea'lia,  in  honor  of  Ceres ;  in  December,  the 
Satiirna'Ua,  or  the  feasts  of  Saturn,  the  most  famous  of  all  the 
festivals.     There  were,  besides,  many  other  festivals. 

33.  Games.  The  shows  exhibited  in  the  circus  maximus 
were  chariot  and  horse-races  ;  contests  of  strength  and  agility  ; 
mock  fights  on  horseback ;  combats  of  wild  beasts  ;  repre- 
sentations of  horse  and  foot  battles ;  and  nauma'chits,  or  mock 
naval  battles. 

34.  Gladiators.  The  gladiators  were  persons  who  fought 
with  weapons  in  a  public  circus  or  amphitheatre,  for  the 
amusement  of  the  people.  These  combats  were  introduced 
about  the  400th  year  of  the  city,  and  became  a  most  favorite 
entertainment.  The  combatants  were,  at  first,  composed  of 
captives,  slaves,  and  condemned  malefactors,  who  were  regu- 
larly trained  for  the  combat ;  but  in  the  more  degenerate  pe- 
riod of  the  empire,  free-born  citizens,  and  even  senators,  en- 
gaged in  this  disgraceful  and  dangerous  amusement.  Great 
numbers  of  men  were  destroyed  in  these  inhum.an  exhibitions. 
After  the  triumph  of  Trajan  over  the  Dacians,  spectacles  were 
exhibited  for  123  days,  in  which  11,000  animals  of  different 
kmds  were  killed,  and  10,000  gladiators  fought. 

35.  TriumjJk.  A  triumph  was  a  solemn  procession,  in 
which  a  victorious  general  and  his  army  advanced  through 
the  city  to  the  Capitol.  It  was  the  highest  military  honor 
which  could  be  obtained  in  the  Roman  state,  and  was  reserved 
for  those  generals  who,  by  hard-jarned  victories  and  glorious 
achievements,  had  added  to  the  territories  of  the  common- 
wealth, or  had  delivered  the  state  from  threatened  danger. 
The  procession  began  from  the  Campus  Martius,  and  passed 
through  the  most  public  places  in  the  city  to  tlie  Capitol ;  the 
streets  being  strewed  with  flowers,  and  the  altars  smoking  with 
incense.  It  was  composed  of  musicians,  oxen  for  sacrifice, 
carriages  carrying  the  spoils  taken  from  the  enemy,  the  cap- 
tive kings  or  leaders  and  their  attendants,  and  after  the  whole, 


ROME.  107 

the  triumphant  general,  dressed  in  purple  embroidered  with 
gold,  with  a  crown  of  laurel  upon  his  head,  and  other  deco- 
rations. 

36.  Dress.  The  most  distinguished  parts  of  the  Roman 
dress  were  the  toga  and  the  tu'nica.  The  toga,  or  gown, 
worn  by  Roman  citizens  only,  was  loose  and  flowing,  and 
covered  the  whole  body  ;  it  had  no  sleeves,  and  was  disposed 
in  graceful  folds,  to  give  the  wearer  a  majestic  appearance. 
The  toga  viri'lis,  or  manly  gown,  was  assumed  by  young  men 
at  the  age  of  17  years.  —  The  tunica,  or  tunic,  was  a  white 
woollen  vest,  which  came  down  a  little  below  the  knees  be- 
foi'c,  and  to  the  middle  of  the  leg  behind,  and  was  fastened 
tight  about  the  waist  by  a  girdle.      * 

37.  Meals.  The  principal  meal  of  the  Romans  was  called 
ccena  or  supper,  which  took  place  about  three  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  and  exceeded  in  luxury  evciything  known  in  mod- 
ern times.  The  early  Romans  lived  chiefly  on  bread  and  pot- 
herbs ;  but  when  riches  were  introduced  by  their  conquests, 
luxury  seized  all  ranks,  and  everything  was  ransacked  to 
gratify  the  appetite.  In  the  early  ages,  the  Romans  sat  at 
meals,  but  afterwards  they  reclined  on  sumptuous  couches. 
Their  ordinary  drink  at  feasts  was  wine,  which  they  mixed 
with  water,  and  sometimes  with  spices. 

38.  Forum.  The  Forum  was  the  principal  public  place  in 
the  city.  It  was  a  large,  oblong,  open  space,  where  the  as- 
semblies of  the  people  were  held,  where  justice  was  adminis- 
tered, and  public  business  transacted.  It  was  entirely  sur- 
rounded with  arched  porticos,  within  which  were  spacious 
halls,  called  basil'ica;,  where  courts  of  justice  might  sit  for  the 
decision  of  private  affairs. 

39.  Campus  Martins.  The  Campus  Martius,  or  Field  of 
Mars,  was  a  large  plain,  without  the  city,  along  the  Tiber, 
where  the  Roman  youth  practised  all  kinds  of  athletic  exer- 
cises and  sports,  and  learned  the  use  of  arms.  It  was  adorned 
with  the  statues  of  famous  men,  and  with  triumphal  arches, 
columns,  porticos,  and  other  magnificent  structures. 


lib 


ROMAN   HISTORY. 


B.C. 

800 

8lh 

700 

7lh 

600 

6lh 

500 


5lh 
400 

300 

3d 

200 

2d 

100 

l5^ 


Chronological  Tablk  of  Roman  History. — JVo.  1. 
From  the  Foundation  of  Rome  to  the  end  of  the  Com-monwealth. 


53  Romulu.s,  founds   Rome;    institutes   the  senate;   divides  the 

people  into  tribes  and  curia  ;  patricians  and  plebeians. 
15  Kama  Pompilius,  a  pacific  king ;  regulates  religious  ceremonies. 


72  TuUiLS  Hostilius.  Combat  between  the  Horatii  and  Curiatii. 
40  Aliens  Marlins,  builds  the  port  of  Ostia;  conquers  the  LMlins. 
16   Tarquin  the  Elder,  constructs  the  cloaca  ;  founds  the  capital. 


76  Scrrins  Tallius,  establishes  the  census,  made  every  otli  year. 

34  Tarquin,  the  Proud,  disgusts  the  people  by  liis  tyranny  :  rape  of 
Lucretia  by  Scxtus.  The  Tarquins  expelled  ;  the  regal 
government  abolished  (oO'J),  and  the  Commonwealth  begins. 


98  Lartius  first  Dictator.     Contests  between  the  Patricians  and 
Plebeians ;  the  latter  retire  to  Mons  Sacer.   Tribunes  created. 
85  Dissensions  respecting  ^^ramm  La?c  begin.     Coriolanus. 
71  Law  Volero  ;  the  privileges  of  the  Plebeians  increased. 
56  Cincinnatus  Dictator  ;  defeats  the  Volsci  and  JEqui. 
51  Decemvirs  appointed  ;  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables. 
49  The  Decemtirs  banished.  —  445.     Military  Tribunes  created. 
45  Intermarriages  of  the  Patricians  and  Plebeians. 
37  Two  Cc7i50r5  appointed. — 406.  The  troops  receive  re^Zar^ay. 


91    Veii  taken  by  Camillus,  the  Dictator. 

90  The  Gauls,  under  Brennus,  defeat  the  Romans,  and  burn  Rome. 

83  Manlius  Capitolinus  thrown  down  the  Tarpeian  Rock. 

43  War  with  the  Samnites  begins  ;  lasts  53  years. 

38  The  Campanians  subdued.  —  332.     The  Appian  Way  formed. 


80  War  with  the  Tarentints  and  Pyrrhus.  -  266.  Lower  Italy  conq. 

64  FirstVvTfic  War;  lasts  till  241.  —  255.     Regulus  AefeaieA. 

22  Cisalpine  Gaul  reduced  to  a  Roman  province. 

18  Second  Punic  War;  lasts  till  201. 

18  Hannibal  defeats  the  Romans  on  the  Ticinus  and  the  Trebia  ; 

(217)  on  the  Tkrasymcnus  ;  and  (216)  at  Cann^s. 
12  Romans  (Marcellus)  take  Syracuse ;  and  (210)  conquer  Sicily. 

7  The  Romans  (JVero  and  Livy)  defeat  Asdrubal  at  Metaurus. 

2  The  Romans  (Scipio  Africanus)  defeat  Hannibal  at  Zama. 


97  The  Romans  defeat  the  Macedonians  at  Cyrwccphale. 
68  Battle  of  Pydna  ;  Macedonia  reduced  to  a  Roman  province. 
49  Third  Punic  War;  ends  (146),  Carthage  being  destroyed. 
46  Corinth  taken,  and  all  Greece  reduced  to  a  Roman  province. 
33  Kumantia  taken,  after  a  long  siege. 
33  Tiberius  Gracchus  sioi'in.  —  121.   Cains  Gracchv^  shiin. 
11  War  against  ./MO'Mrt/tft; — concluded  (106)  by  Mar ius  and  Sylla 
2  Marius  defeats  the  Teutoncs  at  AqvxB  Sextia. 


89  Mithridatic  War  ; — lasts  till  66. 

88  Civil  loar  between  Marius  ^.nd  Sylla.  —  82.  Sylla's  proscription 
73  Servile  War ;  Spartacus.  —  65.  Syria,  conquered  by  Pompey. 
63  Catiline's  Conspiracy  suppressed  by  Cicero. 
60  First  Triumvirate  ;  formed  by  Pompey,  Crassus,  and  Caesar. 
48  Civil  war  ;  Caesar  and  Pompey  ;  battle  of  Pharsalia. 
45  Caesar  perpetual  Dictator; — 44.  Csesar  murdered. 
43  Second  Triumvirate  ;  Octavius,  Antony,  and  Lepidus. 
42  Battle  of  Philippi ;  Brutus  and  Cassius  overthrown. 
31  Battle  of  Actium  gained  by  Augustiis,  who  puts  an  end  to  the 
Commomceallh,  and  becomes  emperor. 


To  aacenain  the  date  of  any  event  in  this  Table,  add  the  figures  connected  with  ths 
•vent  to  the  century  below.    Thua  it  appears  tlial  Rome  teas  burnt  by  (he  GauU  B.C.  390. 


ROMAN  HISTORY.  109 


Chronological  Table  of  Roman  Historv. — JVo.2. 

From  the  end  of  the  Commonioealth  to  the  extinction  of  the  Western 

Empire. 


B.C. 
A.D 


1st 

100 

2d 
200 

3d 

300 

4th 

400 

5th 


'31  Augustus,  1st  Emperor :  golden  porioJ  uf  Hoiruin  Literature. 


14  Tiberius,  2,  characterized  hy  cnielty  and  oppression. 

36  Caligula,  3,  noted  for  profligacy  and  folly  ;  is  murdered. 

41   Clauilius,  4,  a  weak  sovereign  ;  invades  Britain. 

^  Nero,  5,  a  profligate  tyrant ;  sets  Romp,  on  fire.     Peter  and  Paul  martyred. 

6S  Galba,  6,  slain  and  succeeded  by  [69]  Ot/io,  7  ;  by  VitdliJis,  8. 

7U  Ve.ipasian,  'J,  a  popular  emperor.     Jerusalem  taken  by  Titus  in  70. 

7'J  TUus,  10.     IlerodaruMm  and  Pompeii  overwhelmed  in  79. 

31  Domilian,  II,  a  cruel  tyrant,  the  last  of  the  Tieelvu  Ccesars,  Julius  Ca;3ar  be 

ing  the  first.     Britain  conquered  by  Agricola. 
9S  Nervu,  12,  enfeebled  by  ago  ;  adopts  Trajan  for  hia  successor. 
9-^  Trajan,  13,  a  great  sovereign.     The  empire  in  its  greatest  e.xtent. 
17  Adrian,  14,  journeys  tlirough  the  empire  ;  rebuilds  Jerusalem  in  137. 
3S  Anlom7ius  Pius,  1.5,  eminent  for  his  public  and  private  virtues. 
61  Marcus  Aureliiis  Ajitoniniis,  IG,  the  virtuous  Stoic  philosopher. 
80  Commndus,  17,  profligate  and  cruel  ;  is  assassinated. 
93  Pertina.v,  IS,  proclaimed  by  the  Pretorian  guards  ;  murdered. 
93  Didius  Julianus,  19,  purchases  the  empire  ;  soon  put  to  death. 
93  Septimius  Severu.s,  20,  defeat.s  his  competitors,  Niger  and  Albinw;. 


11   Caracalla  and  Geta,  21,  two  brothers;  murdered. 
17  Macrintis,  22,  murdered  at  the  instigation  of  Heliogabalus. 
13  Heliogabalus,  '£i,  a  monster  of  cruelty  and  vice;  is  murdered. 
22  Alexander  Severus.  21,  an  excellent  prince  ;  defeats  the  Pcrsiaiis. 
35  Maximin,  25,  of  gigantic  stature.     During  his  reign,  Gordian  J.,  26,  is  pro- 
claimed by  the  army  ;  unites  Gordian  II.,  27. 

33  Marimus  and  Balbinus,  23  ;  both  slain. 

38  Gordian  HI.,  29,  defeats  the  Persians  under  Sapor. 

44  Philip,  30,  the  Arabian,  succeeded  by  Decius,  31. 

51  Gallus,  32,  with  Gallus  Volusian.     [54]  yEmilian,  33. 

.54  Valerian,  34,  taken  prisoner  and  put  to  death  by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia. 

61   Gallienus,  35;  succeeded  by  [63]  Claudius,  36. 

70  Aurelian,  37,  a  great  warrior,  defeats  Zenobia,  the  Goths,  &c. 

75  Tacitus,  33.     [76]  Florian,  39.     [77]  Probus,  40.     [S2]  Carus,  41. 

32  Nutncrian  and  Carinus,  42. 

34  Diocletian,  43.    The  empire  divided  into  four  parts,  under  two  emperors  and 

two  Cmsars.    The  last  and  greatest  persecution  of  the  Christia?is. 


6  Constantine,  the  Great,  44,  Ist  Christian  emperor  ;  removes  the  seat  of  em- 
pire from  Rome  to  Constantinople. 
36  Constantine  II.,  Constantius,  and  Constans,  45,  three  emperors. 
61  Julian,  46,  the  Apostate,  reestablishes  ihe  pagan  worship,  and  attempts  to 
rebuild  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem. 

63  Jovian,  47,  restores  the  Christian  religion. 

64  ValentinianI.,'lS,emp.o(ll\eWest.  161  Ka/ens /.,  emperor  of  tlie  £asi. 
75  Gratian,  49.  79  Theodosius  t/ie  Great. 

33  Valentinian  II.,  M;    Goths.  | 

92  Theodosius,  51,  the  Great,  the  last  sole  emperor  of  tlie  West  and  East :  com- 
plete establishment  of  Christianity,  and  downfall  of  paganism. 


WESTERN   E.^IPIRE. 
Rome  the  Capital. 
95  Honorius,  52.     Alaric. 


24   Valenlinian  HI.,  53.     Attila. 
55  Maximus,  54.     [55]  Avitus,  55. 
57  Majorian,  56.      [61]   Severus,  57. 

[67]  Athenius,  53. 
72  Olybrius,  59.     [73]   Glucerius,  60. 

[74]  J.  Nepos,  61. 
75  Augustulus  Romulus,  62.    Odoacer 

puts  an  end  to  the  Western  Em.- 

pire,  in  476. 


EASTERN   iSlVIPIRE. 
Constantinople  the  Capital. 
93  Arcadius. 


8  Theodosius  II.  Theodosian  Code. 
Invasion  of  the  Huns,  under 
Attila. 

50  Marcian. 

57  Leo,  the  Great,  first  emperor  crown- 
ed by  the  Patriarch. 

74  Zeno,  makes  Theodoric,  the  Ostro- 
goth, his  general. 

91  Anastasius. 


The  figures  on  the  left  hand  of  the  emperors  denote  the  commencement 
of  their  reigns  ;  those  on  the  right,  the  number  of  the  emperor.  Thus, 
Constantine  the  Great  began  to  reign  in  306,  and  was  the  44th  emperor. 

10 


110 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


Chronolcgical  Table   of   Roman   Litekatdre. 

B.  c. 

Public  Men. 

Foots. 

Historians. 

Philosophers, 

Jew^a. 

500 

5t/i 

Coriolanus 

Ezra 

Ginciunalus 

Malachi 

400 

4l/i 

Cainillua 

Jadua 

Maiiliua 

300 

M 

200 

Fabricius 

Livius  And. 

Sadoc 

Marcellua 

Naevius 

Jesus  Sirac 

Fabiu3  Max. 

Plautus 

Mattathias 

2d 

.Scipio  Afric. 

Ennius 

Judas  Mac. 

Cato,  Censor 

Terence 

J.  Hyrcanus 

100 

Marius 

Sylla 

Serlorius 

Catiline 

Sisenna 

Shammai 

1st 

Crassu.s 

Roscius, 

J.  C^SAR 

Pompey 

Drama. 

Sallust 

Hortensius 

Hillel 

Luculliis 

Lucretiua 

Hirlius  Pan- 

CICERO 

Cato,  Utica 

Catullus 

sa 

Caesar 

VIRGIL 

Cornelius 

Varro, 

Brutus 

Propertius 

Nepos 

Literature. 

Caasiua 

Tibullus 

Vitruvius, 

0 

Antony 

Horace 

Architecture. 

Emperors. 

John  Baptist 

Ovid 

LIVY 

Columella 

Philo 

Phsedrus 

Valerius  Ma. 

Jonathan 

Persiua 

Pomp.  Mela, 

Onkelos 

Lucan 

Geog. 

Christians. 

1st 

Petroniua 

Paterculus 

Seneca 

James 

Silius    Itali- 

Quinlus  Cur- 

Pliny,  Sen. 

Peter 

cus 

lius 

Paul 

Valerius 

Josephus,  Jew 

Flaccus 

TACITUS 

Quinctilian, 

John 

Statins 

Criticism. 

Clemens  Ro. 

100 

Pliny,  Jan. 

I^atius 

Martial 

Suetonius 

Frontinus 

Papias 

2d 

Juvenal 

Florua 

M.  Aurelius 

Justin  Mar. 

Aulus  Gellius 

Antoninus 

Polycarp 

200 

Palladius 

Justin 

IronaBUs 

TertuUian 

U 

Calpurnius 

Origen 
Cyprian 

300 

Vopiscus 

Arius 

4th 

Ausonius 

Lampridius 
Eutropius 

Athanasiua 
Ambrose 

400 

Prudentius 

V.  Sequester 

Chrysostom 

5(A 

Jerome 

Claudian 

Oroaiua 

Augustine 

500 

6th 

Fulgentius 

Mar.  Capella 

Cassiodorus 

Benedict 

600 

7<A 

Boetliius 

Gregory 

Trebonian 

Isidore 

The  most  flourishing  period  of  Roman  Literature  comprised  the  century  immedi- 
tlcly  preceding,  and  that  immediately  following,  the  Christian  era. 


THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


1 .  The  Middle  Ages  comprise  a  period  of  about  a  thousand 
years,  from  the  5th  to  the  15th  century  ;  or  from  tlie  subver- 
sion of  the  Western  Empire  of  the  Romans  to  that  of  the 
Eastern  Empire.  During  these  centuries,  Europe  was  sunk 
in  ignorance,  barbarism,  and  superstition  ;  lience  this  period 
is  styled  the  Dark  Ages. 

2.  The  migration  of  the  Goths,  Vandals,  Huns,  and  other 
barbarous  nations  from  the  north  of  Europe,  took  place  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  4th  century,  and  the  beginning  of  the  5th. 
These  barbarians  possessed  themselves  of  the  middle  and 
south  of  Europe ;  and  in  less  than  one  hundred  years  after 
this  event,  almost  all  learning  and  civilization  disappeared. 
Literature  had  been  gradually  declining  since  the  reign  of 
Augustus ;  yet  considerable  remains  of  it  existed  in  the  Ro- 
man Empire  till  after  the  fall  of  the  capital  before  the  arms 
of  the  Goths.  The  darkest  period  was  from  the  6th  century 
to  the  12th, 

3.  In  these  dark  and  miserable  times,  the  human  mind 
was  neglected  and  debased ;  books  were  extremely  scarce, 
and  were  procured  only  at  an  immense  price,  the  cost  of  a 
single  volume  being  equal  to  that  of  a  good  house ;  the  com- 
mon people  wefe  wholly  uneducated  ;  many  persons  of  the 
liighest  rank,  and  in  the  most  important  stations,  were  unable 
to  read ;  and  contracts  were  made  verbally  for  the  want  of 
persons  capable  of  writing  them.  The  learning  which  existed 
was  confined  chiefly  to  ecclesiastics  and  monks ;  yet  many 
priests  did  not  understand  the  service  which  it  was  their  duty 
daily  to  recite ;  and  many  bishops  had  never  seen  a  copy  of 
the  Bible  during  their  lives. 

4.  The  state  of  morals,  both  among  the  clergy  and  laity, 
was  exceedingly  low  ;  and  Christianity  had  lost  most  of  its 
original  excellence,  and  was  corrupted  into  a  degrading  su- 
perstition. The  political  state  of  Europe  was  also  character- 
ized by  anarchy,  violence,  and  rapine. 


119  THE   ARABS  OR  SARACENS. 

5.  The  absurd  modes  of  trial  by  single  combat  or  duel,  and 
also  by  ordeal^  that  is,  by  walking  blindfold  over  hot  bars  of 
iron,  or  being  thrown  into  the  water,  were  commonly  used  as 
methods  of  discovering  guilt  and  innocence. 

6.  The  most  considerable  empire  that  existed  in  Europe  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages  was  the  New  Emjnre  of  the  West,  which 
was  established  by  Charlemagne,  but  which  was  not  of  long  du- 
ration. It  was  during  these  ages  that  the  famous  and  success- 
ful impostor  Ma'homet  appcjared,  and  the  Mahometan  or  Sara- 
cen Empire  flourished.  From  the  8th  to  the  13th  centuries, 
the  Saracens  surpassed  all  their  contemporaries  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  literature  and  science. 

7.  Some  of  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  which  char- 
acterize the  history  of  Europe  and  the  state  of  society,  during 
this  period,  are,  the  Feudal  System,  the  Crusades,  and  Chivalry 


THE  ARABS   OR   SARACENS. 

1.  Before  the  time  of  Ma'homet,  the  Arabians  were  a  rude 
nation,  living  generally  in  independent  tribes,  who  traced  their 
descent  from  Ishmael,  and  professed  a  mixed  religion,  com- 
pounded of  Judaism  and  idolatry.  They  had  had,  as  a  nation, 
but  little  intercourse  with  the  neighboring  kingdoms. 

2.  The  Saracens,  however,  a  warlike  tribe  of  Arabs  who  in- 
habited the  western  part  of  Arabia,  had,  before  this  period, 
been  induced,  by  the  hope  of  plunder,  to  forsake  their  deserts, 
and  had  become  alternately  the  suppoit  and  terror  of  the  tot- 
tering empires  of  Rome  and  Persia.  They  were  in  the  habit 
of  selling  their  services,  as  mercenaries,  to  those  who  would 
pay  most  liberally  ;  and  their  name  was  applied,  by  Christian 
authors  of  tlie  Middle  Ages,  to  the  Arabian  nations  generally, 
who  were  the  first  disciples  of  Mahomet ;  and  who,  within  50 
years  after  his  death,  conquered  a  considerable  part  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  some  portions  of  Europe  ;  but  the  descendents 
of  the  Arabs,  who  subdued  and  possessed  themselves  of  Spain, 
have  been  styled  Moors. 

3.  Arabia  had  afforded  an  asylum  to  the  persecuted  Chris- 
tians of  different  sects  ;  and,  at  the  end  of  the  6th  century, 
Christianity  had  become  the  prevailing  religion  in  some  parts 
of  the  country.  It  was,  however,  a  most  corrupt  form  of 
Christianity,  inculcating  the  worship  of  saints  and  images,  with 
many  other  absurd  and  superstitious  ceremonies  ;  and,  among 


THE  ARABS  OR  SARACENS.  113 

both  the  priests  and  the  people,  a  general  depravity  of  manners 
prevailed. 

4.  Such  was  tlie  state  of  Arabia,  when  Ma'homel  or  Moliam'- 
mcd,  that  most  extraordinary  and  successful  impostor,  appear- 
ed. He  was  a  native  of  Mecca,  a  man  of  no  education,  but  of 
great  natural  talents.  In  609,  when  about  40  years  of  age,  he 
pretended  to  have  received  a  divine  commission  to  propagate 
a  new  religion.  He  withdrew  to  a  place  of  retirement,  where 
he  affirmed  that  he  held  conferences  with  the  angel  Gabriel. 
These  discourses  were  collected  into  a  volume  called  the  Ko- 
ran,  or  Alcoran,  which  is  the  Mahometan  bible.  Ma'homet 
performed  no  miracles,  but  appealed  chiefly  to  the  excellence 
of  the  doctrine  contained  in  the  Koran,  and  to  the  elegance  of 
Its  style,  as  proofs  of  its  inspiration. 

5.  The  two  leading  doctrines  of  his  religion  were  these, 
namely,  "  There  is  hut  one  God,  and  Mahomet  is  his  prophet.'''' 
He  taught  that  others,  at  various  times,  as  Abraham,  Moses, 
and  Jesus  Christ,  had  been  divinely  commissioned  to  teach 
mankind  ;  but  that  he  himself  was  the  last  and  greatest  of  the 
prophets.  He  adopted  much  of  the  morality  of  the  Gospel,  and 
retained  many  of  the  rites  of  Judaism,  and  some  of  the  Ara- 
bian superstitions,  particularly  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  But 
he  owed  his  success,  in  a  great  measure,  to  his  allowing  his 
followers  great  latitude  in  licentious  indulgences,  and  to  his 
promising  them,  as  their  future  reward,  a  paradise  of  sensual 
pleasures. 

6.  He  propagated  his  religion  by  the  sword,  stimulated  the 
courage  of  his  followers  by  inculcating  the  strictest  predestina- 
rianism  or  fatalism,  and  roused  their  enthusiasm  by  the  assur- 
ance of  a  martyr's  crown  to  every  one  who  should  fall  in  bat- 
tle. It  was  inculcated  as  a  fundamental  doctrine,  that  "  to 
fight  for  the  faith  was  an  act  of  obedience  to  God  "  ;  hence 
the  Mahometans  or  Saracens  denominated  their  ferocious  and 
bloody  ravages  holy  wars.  —  They  term  their  religion  Islam  or 
Islamism ;  and  call  themselves  Mussulmans  or  Moslems,  that 
is,  true  believers  or  orthodox. 

7.  Mahomet,  in  the  beginning  of  his  efforts,  had  but  little 
success  in  making  proselytes.  His  first  converts  were  his 
wife  Kadija,  his  slave  Zcid,  his  cousin  and  son-in-law  the  fa- 
mous All,  and  Ins  father-in-law  Ahu-heker,  who  was  a  man  of 
influence.  These,  together  with  ten  others,  were  all  whom  he 
had  persuaded  to  acknowledge  the  truth  of  his  mission,  at  the 
end  of  three  years. 

8.  A  popular  tumult  being  raised  against  him  at  Mecca,  he 
was  compelled,  in  order  to  save  his  life,  to  escape  ;  and  he  fled 
in  disguise  to  Medina.     His  flight,  or  Hcgira,  is  the  MuhoHi' 

10* 


114  THE   ARARS   OR   SARACENS. 

etan  era,  corresponding  to  the  year  A.  D.  622.  He  was  car« 
ried  into  Medina  in  triumph,  by  500  of  its  richest  citizens ;  and 
there  he  assumed  tlie  sacerdotal  and  regal  office.  He  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  liis  converts,  and  began  to 
propagate  his  religion  by  the  sword  :  having  defeated  his  ene- 
mies, he  entered  his  native  city,  Mecca,  in  629,  as  a  triumphant 
conqueror.  He  fought  in  person  nine  battles,  subdued  all 
Arabia,  extended  his  conquests  to  Syria,  and  after  a  career  of 
victory,  died  at  Medina,  at  the  age  of  63,  ten  years  after  his 
flight  from  Mecca  to  that  city. 

9.  Mahomet  affected  the  most  rigid  austerity,  and  the  most 
ostentatious  piety  ;  and  he  is  described  "  as  a  perfect  model  of 
Arabian  virtue,  brave  and  liberal,  eloquent  and  vigorous,  noble 
and  simple  in  all  his  dealings,  and  of  irreproachable  morals." 
This  is  the  fair  side  of  his  character;  but  on  the  other  hand, 
he  is  reproached  with  the  grossest  sensuality,  —  having  married, 
according  to  some  authors,  eleven,  and  according  to  others,  sev- 
enteen wives,  —  with  never  having  hesitated  to  make  use  of  the 
worst  passions  of  his  followers  for  the  advancement  of  his  pur- 
poses, and  with  having  had  frequent  recourse,  in  the  progress  of 
his  conquests,  to  the  most  wanton  cruelty  and  the  basest  perfidy. 

10.  Mahomet  was  succeeded  by  Abu-ieker,  who  is  styled 
the  first  caliph,  a  subordinate  title,  which  was  assumed  from 
respect  and  in  reference  to  Mahomet,  and  which  signifies,  in 
Arabic,  successor  or  vicar.  He  continued  the  career  of  con- 
quest, and,  with  the  aid  of  his  general  Caled,  defeated  a  great 
army  of  the  Greek  emperor  Herac'lius,  took  Damascus,  and 
died  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign.  At  his  death  he  bequeathed 
the  sceptre  to  the  brave  Omar.  "  I  have  no  occasion  for  the 
place,"  said  Omar.  "  But  the  place  has  occasion  for  yoit,"  re- 
plied the  dying  caliph. 

11.  Omar,  with  the  assistance  of  his  favorite  general  Ohei- 
dah,  in  one  campaign,  deprived  the  Greek  empire  of  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Chaldea ;  and  in  a  second  cam- 
paign, he  reduced  to  the  Mussulman  dominion  and  religion 
(he  whole  empire  of  Persia.  His  army,  under  Amrou,  took 
Alexandria,  and  subdued  Egypt. 

12.  Amrou,  being  requested  to  spare  the  Alexandrian  libra- 
ry, wrote  for  directions  respecting  it  to  Omar,  who  is  said  to 
have  returned  the  following  answer,  characteristic  of  an  igno- 
rant barbarian  and  fanatic  :  "  If  these  writings  agi*ee  with  the 
Koran,  they  are  useless,  and  need  not  be  preserved ;  if  they 
disagree,  they  are  pernicious,  and  ought  to  be  destroyed." 
The  sentence,  as  is  related  by  numerous  authors,  was  executed 
by  using  this  vast  collection  of  the  writings  of  the  ancients  as 
fuel  for  heating  the  4000  baths  of  the  city  for  six  months.    This 


THE   ARABS  OR  SARACENS.  115 

was  the  largest  library  that  the  world  had  then  seen,  —  stated 
Rt  700,000  volumes,  —  and  its  destruction  is  regarded  as  the 
greatest  loss  to  literature  that  is  recorded  in  history. 

13.  Omar,  during  a  reign  of  10  years,  reduced  36,000  cities 
and  villages  to  his  obedience,  demolished  4,000  Christian 
churches  or  temples,  and  erected  1,400  mosques  for  Mahom- 
etan worship.  He  was  finally  assassinated,  and  succeeded  by 
Othman,  who  added  Bactria'na  and  a  part  of  Tartary  to  the 
dominion  of  the  caliphs.  On  his  4gath,  AH,  who  had  married 
Fal'ima,  the  daughter  of  Mahomet,  was  elected  to  the  caliph- 
ate. He  is  reputed  the  bravest  and  most  virtuous  of  the 
caliphs,  and  his  reign  was  glorious,  though  of  only  five  years' 
duration. 

14.  In  the  space  of  less  than  half  a  century,  the  Saracens 
raised  an  empire  more  extensive  than  what  then  remained  of 
the  Roman  ;  and  in  100  years  from  the  flight  of  Mahomet  from 
Mecca  to  Medina,  the  dominions  of  his  successors  extended 
from  India  to  the  Atlantic,  comprehending  the  widely  distant 
regions  of  Persia,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  Egypt,  the  North 
of  Africa,  and  Spain. 

15.  The  reign  of  AH  forms  a  remarkable  era  in  the  Mus- 
Bulman  history,  on  account  of  a  schism  which  then  arose,  and 
which  caused  the  followers  of  Mahomet  to  be  divided  into  two 
great  parties,  which  still  continue  to  exist,  known  by  the  names 
of  Sunnites,  or  Sonnites,  and  Shiites^  who  detest  and  anathema- 
tize each  other  as  heretics.  The  Shiites  are  zealous  adherents 
of  AH,  whom  they  regard  as  equal  to  Mahomet,  but  reject 
Abu-beker,  Omar,  and  Othman,  the  first  three  caliphs,  as  usurp- 
ers. The  Sunnhes,  or  orthodox  Mahometans,  acknowledge  the 
rightful  authority  of  these  caliphs,  but  admit  no  one  to  be  equal 
to  Mahomet ;  and  they  receive  the  Sunnah,  or  body  of  tra- 
ditions concerning  the  prophet,  as  of  canonical  authority  ;  but 
this  is  rejected  by  the  Shiites.  The  Turks  are  Sunnites,  and 
the  Persians  are  Shiites. 

16.  Ali  removed  the  seat  of  the  Mussulman  sovereigns  from 
Me<:;ca  to  Cufa,  on  the  Euphrates ;  and  in  768,  it  was  removed 
by  Almansor  to  Bagdad  ;  hence  they  are  styled  caHphs  of 
Bagdad.  Next  to  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad,  the  other  caliph- 
ate most  illustrious  in  Saracenic  history  was  that  of  Cordova 
in  Spain.  WaHd,  who  reigned  at  Cufa  in  the  early  part  of 
the  8th  century,  was  the  first  that  founded  a  hospital,  and 
built  caravansaries  or  public  inns,  for  the  accommodation  of 
travellers. 

17.  The  first  race  of  caliphs  were  styled  Ommi'ades,  the 
first  of  whom  was  Moawii/ak ;  of  these,  19  reigned  in  succes- 
eion ;  after  which  began  the  dynasty  of  the  Abbas'sides,  who 


116  THE   ARABS   OR  SARACEWS. 

were  descended  from  Ahhas^  the  uncle  of  Mahomet.  Ahnan 
sor,  the  second  caliph  of  this  race,  built  Bagdad,  and  made  il 
the  seat  of  the  Saracen  empii'e,  and  it  became  the  largest  and 
most  splendid  city  in  the  world.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of 
learning  and  science ;  and  it  was  he  who  first  introduced  the 
cultivation  of  them  among  the  Saracens. 

18.  The  reign  of  Haroun  al  Raschid,  the  25th  caliph,  who 
was  contemporary  with  Charlemagne,  was  the  most  splendid  of 
the  whole  dynasty  ;  and  it  is  regarded  as  the  Augustan  age  of 
Saracen  or  Arabic  literature.  This  prince  rendered  himself 
illustrious  by  his  valor,  generosity,  and  benevolence ;  by  his 
equitable  government,  and  his  patronage  of  learned  men.  It 
is  to  these  times  that  a  great  part  of  our  proverbs  and  roman- 
ces must  be  referred  ;  and  the  Thousand  and  one  Nights  have 
rendered  Haroun  al  Raschid  more  celebrated  than  his  victo- 
rious march  through  Asia.  Schools  of  learning  were,  at  this 
period,  established  in  the  principal  towns.  The  sciences 
chiefly  cultivated  were  medicine,  geometry,  and  astronomy : 
poetry  and  fiction  also  commanded  attention.  Some  of  the 
successors  of  Haroun  al  Raschid,  particularly  his  son  Al  Ma- 
mun^  followed  his  footsteps  in  patronizing  learning.  Litera- 
ture was  also  successfully  cultivated  by  the  Saracens  of  Spain 
and  Africa 

19.  From  the  time  of  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment to  Bagaxd,  the  importance  of  Arabia  began  to  decline. 
Many  chiefs  of  the  interior  provinces  I'ose  to  assert  their  in- 
dependence, and  withdrew  themselves  from  the  civil  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  caliph,  regarding  him  only  as  the  head  of  their 
religion. 

20.  The  Saracens  might  have  established  an  immense  em- 
pire, if  they  had  acknowledged  but  one  head  ;  but  as  their  con- 
quests extended,  their  states  soon  became  disunited.  Spain, 
Egypt,  Morocco,  and  India  had,  at  an  early  period,  their  sepa- 
rate sovereigns,  who  continued  to  respect  the  caliph  of  Bagdad 
as  the  successor  of  the  prophet,  but  acknowledged  no  temporal 
subjection  to  his  government. 

21.  The  house  of  Ahhas  furnished  37  caliphs,  who  reigned 
in  succession.  Bagdad  continued  to  be  the  seat  of  the  Sara- 
cen empire  490  years,  during  which  long  period  it  sustained 
several  obstinate  sieges,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  a  bloody 
revolution.  At  length,  in  the  656th  year  of  the  Hegira,  A.  D. 
1258,  Bagdad  was  taken  by  Hulaku,  the  grandson  of  the  cele- 
brated Genghis  EJian :  the  reigning  caliph,  Al  Mostasem^  was 
put  to  death  ;  the  caliphate  was  abolished,  and  the  Saracen 
empire  terminated. 

22.  The   immediate  successors  of   Mahomet   found   t!.em 


THE  FEUDAL   SYSTEM.  117 

selves  under  the  necessity  of  affecting  that  enthusiastic  de- 
votion, and  rigid  austerity,  by  which  he  had  established  his 
character  as  a  prophet,  and  his  power  as  a  sovereign.  All 
the  time  they  could  spare  from  the  duties  of  royalty  was  spent 
in  prayer  or  preaching  before  the  sepulchre  of  the  impostor. 
Their  manners  were  modest  and  unassuming ;  they  affected 
great  humility,  practised  various  mortifications,  and  conde- 
scended to  perform  the  meanest  offices.  Satisfied  with  the 
power  of  royalty,  they  affected  to  disdain  its  pomp.  But  when 
their  power  was  confirmed  beyond  the  fear  of  revolution,  they 
forgot  the  real  or  affected  virtues  which  their  predecessors  had 
found  it  necessary  to  practise,  and  became  distinguished  for 
their  oppression,  their  love  of  show  and  magnificence,  their 
luxury  and  effeminacy. 

23.  As  the  caliphs  succeeded  to  both  the  regal  and  sacer- 
dotal offices  which  Mahomet  had  assumed,  they  were  the  most 
absolute  monarchs  in  the  world.  No  privileged  order  was 
recognized  in  the  Saracen  empire,  to  impose  a  salutary  re- 
straint on  the  will  of  the  despots.  The  Koran  was,  indeed, 
prescribed  as  the  rule  of  their  actions,  and  it  inculcated  the 
duties  of  humanity  and  justice  ;  but  they  were  themselves  the 
interpreters  and  judges  of  that  code  ;  nor  did  any  Mussulman 
dare  dispute  their  infallibility.  Their  office,  uniting  spiritual 
with  temporal  power,  bore  a  striking  resemblance  to  that  of 
the  popes ;  nor  did  the  resemblance  fail,  with  regard  to  pomp, 
haughtiness,  and  oppression. 


THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 

1.  The  Feudal  System  had  its  origin  among  the  barbarous 
nations,  the  Goths,  Vandals,  Huns,  Lombards,  &c.,  that  over- 
ran the  countries  of  Europe,  on  the  decline  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire ;  but  it  is  supposed  to  have  received  its  earliest  improve- 
ment among  the  Lombards.  It  was  adopted  by  Charlemagne, 
and  eventually  by  most  of  the  princes  of  Europe ;  and  it  is 
generally  believed  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  England 
by  William  the  Conqueror. 

2.  When  the  northern  barbarians  had  made  a  conquest  of 
the  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  conquered  lands  were 
distributed  by'lot ;  hence  they  were  called  allotted  or  allodial ; 
and  they  were  held  in  entire  sovereignty  by  the  different  chief- 
tains, without  any  other  obligation  existing  between  them  than 


118  THE   FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 

that  of  uniting,  in  case  of  war,  for  tlie  common  defence.  The 
king  or  captain-general,  who  led  on  his  respective  tribes  to 
conquest,  naturally  received  by  far  the  largest  portion  of  ter- 
ritory for  his  own  share  ;  and  his  principal  followers,  to  whom 
he  granted  lands,  bound  themselves  merely  to  render  him  mili- 
tary services. 

3.  The  example  of  the  king  was  imitated  by  his  courtiers, 
who  distributed,  under  similar  conditions,  portions  of  their  es- 
tates to  their  dependants.  Thus  a  feudal  kingdom  became 
a  military  establishment,  and  had  the  appearance  of  a  victo- 
rious army  encamped  under  its  officers  in  different  parts  of 
a  country ;  every  captain  or  baron  considering  himself  in- 
dependent of  his  sovereign,  except  during  a  period  of  na- 
tional war. 

4.  Possessed  of  wide  tracts  of  country,  and  residing  at  a 
distance  from  the  capital,  these  barons  or  lords  erected  strong 
and  gloomy  castles  or  fortresses  in  places  of  difficult  access  ; 
and  not  only  oppressed  the  people,  and  slighted  the  civil  mag- 
istracy of  the  state,  but  were  often  in  a  condition  to  set  the 
authority  of  the  crown  itself  at  defiance. 

5.  The  fundamental  principle  of  this  system  was,  that  all 
the  lands  were  originally  granted  out  by  the  sovereign,  and 
were  held  of  the  crown.  The  grantor  was  called  lord,  and 
those  to  whom  he  made  grants  were  styled  his  feudatories  or 
vassals.  As  military  service  was  the  only  burden  to  which 
the  feudatories  were  subjected,' this  service  was  esteemed 
honorable,  and  the  names  of  freeman  and  soldier  were  sy- 
nonymous. 

6.  The  great  mass  of  the  people,  who  cultivated  the  lands, 
were  styled  serfs  or  villains,  and  were  in  a  state  of  miserable 
servitude.  They  were  not  permitted  to  bear  arms,  nor  suffered 
to  leave  the  estates  of  their  lords. 

7.  The  feudal  government,  though  well  calculated  for  de- 
fence, was  very  defective  in  its  provisions  for  the  interior  order 
of  society.  A  kingdom  resembled  a  cluster  of  confederated 
states  under  a  common  head  ;  and  though  the  barons  or  nobles 
owed  a  species  of  allegiance  to  the  king,  yet,  when  obedience 
was  refused,  it  could  be  enforced  only  by  war. 

8.  The  bond  of  union  being  feeble,  and  the  sources  of  dis- 
cord innumerable,  a  kingdom  often  exhibited  a  scene  of  an- 
arch)'', turbulence,  and  war ;  and  such  was,  in  fact,  the  state 
of  Europe,  with  respect  to  interior  government,  from  the  7th 
to  the  11th  century. 

9.  Some  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  gradual  overthrow 
of  the  Feudal  Systen*  were,  the  crusades,  the  formation  of 
cities  into  communities  with  special  privileges,  the  change  of 


THE   CRUSADES.  119 

the  mode  of  war  which  followed  the  invention  of  gunpowder, 
the  extension  of  commerce,  the  increase  and  distribution  of 
wealth,  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge.  Some  relics  of  it, 
however,  still  exist  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  particularly  in 
Russia  and  Poland,  and  in  some  portions  of  Germany. 


THE  CRUSADES. 

1.  The  Crusades,  or  Holy  Wars,  the  first  of  which  was 
commenced  in  1096,  and  the  last  in  1270,  were  military  expe- 
ditions, undertaken  by  the  Christians  of  Europe,  for  the  de- 
liverance of  Palestine,  and  particularly  the  sepulchre  of  our 
Savior,  fi'om  the  dominion  of  the  Mahometans.  These  enter- 
prises involved  all  the  nations  of  Western  Europe  ;  yet,  in  most 
of  them,  the  French  took  the  lead.  In  637,  Jerusalem  was 
conquered  by  the  Saracens^  who  were  induced,  by  self-interest, 
to  permit  Christian  pilgrims  to  visit  the  city.  But  when  the 
Turks^  a  wild  and  ferocious  tribe  of  Tartars,  got  possession  of 
Jerusalem,  in  1065,  the  pilgrims  were  no  longer  safe,  but  were 
exposed  to  insult  and  robbery.  The  dangers  of  pilgrimage, 
painted  in  the  most  frightful  colors  by  those  who  returned 
from  the  holy  city,  threatened  the  discontinuance  of  what 
was  regarded,  in  that  age  of  ignorance  and  superstition,  a 
sacred  duty. 

2.  Peter  the  Hermit^  a  native  of  Amiens,  in  France,  having 
returned  from  a  painful  pilgrimage,  conceived  the  design  of 
arming  the  sovereigns  and  people  of  Europe,  for  the  purpose 
of  rescuing  the  holy  sepulchre  out  of  the  hands  of  the  infidels. 
With  this  view,  he  travelled  from  kingdom  to  kingdom,  de- 
scribing the  sufferings  of  the  pilgrims  with  the  most  inflamma- 
tory pathos,  and  calling  aloud  for  vengeance.  He  exhibited, 
in  his  own  person,  a  complete  specimen  of  monkish  austerity 
and  frantic  enthusiasm.  His  body,  Avhich  was  covered  witii  a 
coarse  garment,  seemed  wasted  with  fasting ;  his  head  was 
bare ;  his  feet  naked ;  he  bore  aloft  in  his  hand  a  large  and 
weighty  crucifix ;  and  his  prayers  were  frequent,  long,  and 
loud.  He  accosted  every  person  whom  he  met,  and  entered, 
without  hesitation,  the  palaces  of  the  great  and  the  cottages 
of  the  poor. 

3.  Urban  IL,  the  reigning  pontiff,  pitched  upon  this  en- 
thusiast as  a  fit  person  to  commence  the  execution  of  a  grand 
design,  which  had  before  been  entertained  by  the  popes,  par- 
ticularly Gregory  VII.,  {Ilildeirand,)  of  arming  all  Christen- 


120  THE  CRUSADES. 

dom  against  the  Mahometans.  The  project  was  opened  in  two 
general  councils,  which  were  held  at  Placentia  and  Clermont^ 
in  1095,  and  attended  hy  many  thousands.  The  pope  himself 
harangued  the  multitude,  and  proposed  that  the  cross,  which 
was  made  of  red  stuff  attached  to  the  right  shoulder,  should  be 
the  badge  of  the  combatants ;  and  from  this  badge  the  expedi- 
tions were  termed  crusades.  Plenary  indulgence  and  full  ab- 
solution were  proclaimed  to  all  who  should  devote  themselves 
to  the  service. 

4.  An  immense  multitude  of  ambitious  and  disorderly  no* 
bles,  with  their  dependants,  eager  for  enterprise  and  rapine, 
and  assured  of  eternal  salvation,  immediately  took  the  cross. 
Robbers,  incendiaries,  murderers,  and  thousands  of  inferior 
offenders,  readily  embraced  the  opportunity  of  making  expia- 
tion for  their  sins ;  and  their  zeal  was  increased  by  the  hope 
of  plunder  and  of  sensual  gratification.  Peter  the  Hermit 
assumed  the  office  of  general,  for  which  he  was  totally  unqual- 
ified, and,  placing  himself  at  the  head  of  80,000  recruits,  com- 
menced his  march  towards  the  East  in  the  spring  of  1096. 
This  army  was  followed  by  a  promiscuous  assemblage  of 
200,000  persons,  more  like  the  collected  banditti  of  Europe 
than  a  regularly  constituted  soldiery.  The  Jews  of  Germany 
were  their  first  victims ;  but  their  outrages  in  Hungary  and 
Bulgaria  drew  upon  them  a  severe  retaliation  from  the  in- 
habitants, so  that  not  more  than  a  third  part  of  this  undisci- 
plined multitude  arrived  with  Peter  at  Constantinople.  These 
were  met  by  sultan  Sol'y7nan,  on  the  plain  of  Nice,  and  almost 
totally  destroyed,  without  ever  having  seen  Jei-usalem. 

5.  But  a  more  valuable  part  of  the  expedition  was  still  in 
reserve,  and  soon  after  arrived  at  Constantinople.  These  were 
men  properly  trained  and  appointed,  led  by  experienced  and 
able  generals.  The  supreme  command  was  conferred  on 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  who  was  supported  by  Baldwin  his 
brother,  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy  (son  of  William  the  Con- 
queror of  England),  Hugh,  count  of  Vermandois,  Raymond, 
count  of  Thoulouse,  and  various  other  distinguished  princes 
of  Europe.  When  reviewed  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nice, 
they  amounted  to  100,000  horse,  and  600,000  foot,  including  a 
train  of  women  and  followers. 

6.  Having  taken  Nice,  and  defeated  Solyman,  they  pro- 
ceeded eastward,  conquered  Edessa,  took  the  city  of  Antioch, 
vanquished  an  army  of  600,000  Saracens,  and,  being  reduced 
to  little  more  than  a  twentieth  part  of  their  original  number, 
advanced  to  Jerusalem,  which,  after  a  siege  of  40  days,  was 
taken  by  storm,  in  1099  ;  and  the  whole  of  its  Mahometan  and 
Jewish  inhabitants  were  barbarously  massacred.     The  heroic 


THE   CRUSADES.  121 

Godfrey  was  proclaimed  king  of  Jerusalem  by  the  troops,  and 
ho  soon  after  defeated  the  sultan,  with  an  immense  army,  at 
Ascalon ;  but,  after  having  reigned  one  year,  he  was  compelled 
to  give  up  his  kingdom  to  the  pope's  legate. 

7.  The  conquerors  divided  Syria  and  Palestine  into  four 
states ;  and,  seeing  their  object  accomplished,  they  began  to 
return  to  Europe.  The  Turks  gradually  recovered  their 
strength  ;  and  the  crusaders  who  remained  in  Asia,  finding 
themselves  surrounded  by  foes,  were  under  the  necessity  of 
soliciting  aid  from  Christendom.  An  army  of  adventurers, 
collected  by  Hugh,  the  brother  of  Philip  I.  of  France,  met 
with  a  fate  similar  to  that  of  the  army  under  Peter  the  Hermit, 
being  cut  off  in  hostilities,  first  with  the  Greeks,  and  afterwards 
with  Solyman. 

8.  The  second  crusade  was  preached,  in  1147,  by  the  fa- 
mous St.  Bernard.,  the  founder  of  the  monastic  order  of  the 
Bernardines  ;  and  Louis  VII.  of  France,  and  Conrad  III.  of 
Germany,  with  300,000  of  their  subjects,  were  persuaded  to 
assume  the  cross.  Conrad  took  the  lead,  but  his  army  was  al- 
most entirely  extirpated  near  Ico'nium ;  the  French,  under 
Louis,  were  totally  defeated  near  Laodice'a ;  and  the  two  mon- 
archs,  after  witnessing  the  destruction  of  the  finest  armies 
which  their  countries  had  produced,  returned  with  shame  to 
their  dominions. 

9.  The  illustrious  Sal'adin,  who,  about  the  year  1 174,  raised 
himself,  from  the  condition  of  an  attendant  of  the  caliphs,  to 
the  sovereignty  of  Egypt,  Arabia,  Syria,  and  Persia,  formed 
the  design  of  recovering  Palestine  from  the  Christians.  Hav- 
ing defeated  their  army  in  the  battle  of  Tiberias,  he  besieged 
and  took  Jerusalem,  in  1187,  and  made  its  sovereign,  Guy  of 
Lu^ignan,  prisoner. 

10.  The  reigning  sovereigns  of  the  principal  states  of  Eu- 
rope, Philip  Augustus  of  France,  Richard  I.  of  England,  and 
Frederic  Barbarossa  of  Germany,  were  men  of  eminent  tal- 
ents ;  and  by  the  influence  of  pope  Clement  III.,  they  were  in- 
duced to  unite  in  a  third  crusade,  in  1188.  The  Emperor 
Frederic  was  drowned  in  Cilicia,  in  the  small  river  Cydnus, 
and  his  army  mostly  destroyed.  The  English  and  French 
were  more  fortunate  :  they  took  Ptolema'is  ;  but  Richard  and 
Philip  quarrelled  from  jealousy  of  each  other's  glory,  and  the 
French  monarch  returned  in  disgust  to  his  country. 

11.  Richard  ably  sustamed  the  contest  with  the  Sultan  Sal- 
adin,  whom  he  defeated  near  As'calon  :  but  his  army  was  re- 
duced by  famine,  fatigue,  and  intestine  quarrels.  Returning 
through  Germany,  unaccompanied  by  his  troops,  he  was  ar- 
rested, and  kept  in  prison,  till  an  immense  ransom  was  pro- 

11 


lae  THE  CRUSADES. 

cured  from  his  subjects.     Before  his  departure  from  Syria,  he 
had  made  a  peace  with  Saladin,  who  soon  after  died. 

12.  Notwithstanding  the  misery  which  had  been  the  uniform 
result  of  the  crusades,  such  was  the  madness  of  the  age,  that 
fresh  adventurers  were  ever  ready  to  renew  them.  In  1202, 
during  the  pontificate  of  the  ambitious  pope  Innocent  III.j 
Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  collected  an  army  to  act  against 
the  Mahometans  in  a  fourth  crusade  ;  but  he  began,  as  others 
had  done,  with  the  Eastern  Christians.  Arriving  at  Constanti- 
nople at  a  time  when  there  was  a  dispute  respecting  the  suc- 
cession, his  interference  tempted  one  claimant  to  assassinate 
his  rival,  and  Baldwin,  after  despatching  the  other  by  a  public 
execution,  and  indulging  his  folloAvers  with  the  plunder  of  the 
city,  took  possession  of  the  imperial  throne  of  the  Eastern 
Empire.  Satisfied  with  this  splendid  acquisition,  he  attempted 
nothing  against  the  Saracens. 

13.  John  de  Brienne,  a  French  nobleman,  being  appointed 
king  of  Jerusalem,  made,  in  1217,  a  descent  upon  Egypt,  at 
the  head  of  100,000  men,  with  the  design  of  destroying  the 
power  of  its  sultan  at  the  seat  of  government.  After  a  long 
siege,  he  took  Damietta  ;  but,  his  army  being  subsequently  sur- 
rounded by  an  inundation  of  the  Nile,  he  was  forced  to  give 
up  his  conquests  and  surrender  his  person  as  a  hostage. 

14.  The  crusading  fanaticism  in  Europe  had,  at  length,  be- 
gun to  languish  ;  but  it  was  again  revived  by  St.  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  a  monarch  alike  distinguished  for  being  deeply  imbued 
with  the  superstition  of  the  age,  and  for  possessing  every  ami- 
able and  heroic  virtue.  After  four  years'  preparation,  he  set 
out  for  the  Holy  Land,  in  1248,  with  his  queen,  his  three 
brothers,  and  all  the  knights  of  France. 

15.  He  began  his  enterprise  by  invacjing  tlgypt,  and,  after 
losing  one  half  of  his  numerous  army  by  sickness,  he  was  ut- 
terly defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Saracens.  Having 
ransomed  himself  and  his  followers,  he  proceeded  to  Palestine., 
where  he  remained  for  a  considerable  time ;  and  then,  returning 
to  France,  he  reigned  wisely  and  prosperously  for  13  years. 
But  the  same  frenzy  assailing  him  again,  he  embarked,  in 
1270,  on  another  crusade  against  the  Moors  in  Africa,  and 
laid  siege  to  Tunis,  near  which  he  and  the  greater  part  of  his 
army  were  destroyed  by  a  pestilence.  This  was  the  last  of 
these  mad  enterprises. 

16.  Effects  of  the  Crusades.  The  crusades  owed  their  or- 
igin to  the  fanaticism  and  superstition  of  an  ignorant  and  bar- 
barous age,  superadded  to  ambition,  love  of  military  achieve- 
ment, and  a  desire  of  plunder.  No  other  military  enterprise 
ever  commanded  the  attention  of  Europe  so  generally  or  so 


THK   CRUSADES.  123 

long ;  and  no  other  aflbrds  a  more  memorable  monument  of 
human  folly.  They  assumed  the  sacred  character  of  religion, 
and  were  styled  Holy  Wars.  Their  tracks  marked  the  three 
quarters  of  the  world  which  were  then  known  with  blood  ; 
and  for  nearly  two  centuries  they  afflicted  almost  every  family 
of  Europe  with  the  most  painful  privations.  It  is  computed, 
tliat,  during  their  continuance,  more  than  two  millions  of  Euro- 
peans were  buried  in  the  East.  Those  who  survived  were 
soon  blended  with  the  Mahometan  population  of  Syria,  and,  in 
a  few  years,  not  a  vestige  of  the  Christian  conquest  remained. 

17.  These  barbarous  expeditions,  though  productive  of  so 
much  misery,  had,  nevertheless,  a  powerful  influence  in  pro- 
ducing a  great  and  beneficial  change  in  the  aspect  of  society. 
Their  effects  were  observable,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  on 
the  political  condition.,  the  manners  and  customs.^  the  commerce., 
the  literature.,  and  the  religion  of  Christendom. 

18.  At  the  commencement  of  the  crusades,  the  Feudal  Sys- 
tem prevailed  throughout  Europe.  The  barons  who  engaged 
in  them  were  obliged  to  sell  their  lands,  in  order  to  procure 
the  means  of  conveying  their  troops  to  a  foreign  country.  In 
this  way  the  aristocracy  was  weakened,  wealth  more  widely 
distributed,  and  the  lower  classes  began  to  acquire  property, 
influence,  and  a  spirit  of  independence.  Kings,  likewise, 
raised  money  by  selling  to  towns  immunities  and  privileges, 
such  as  the  right  of  electing  their  own  magistrates,  and  being 
governed  by  their  own  municipal  laws. 

19.  In  the  ages  immediately  preceding  the  crusades,  the 
manners  and  mode  of  life  which  prevailed  in  Europe  were 
gross  and  barbarous  ;  and  so,  indeed,  they  continued  for  a  long 
time  after  their  termination  ;  yet  a  gradual  improvement  was 
soon  visible.  Travelling  in  foreign  countries  has  a  tendency 
to  enlarge  the  views,  and  polish  the  manners.  In  the  East, 
particularly  in  Constantinople,  the  crusaders  became  acquaint- 
ed with  modes  of  life  superior  to  what  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  in  their  own  countries,  and  of  which,  on  their  return, 
they  were  ready  to  recommend  the  adoption.  The  crusades 
gave  rise  to  various  orders  of  knighthood.,  especially  those  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem.,  and  the  Templars.  They  imbued  chiv' 
airy  with  religion,  and  brought  it  to  maturity. 

20.  These  enterprises  had  a  most  beneficial  influence  on 
commerce  and  the  arts.  Commerce  had  been  carried  on  upon 
only  a  very  limited  scale  ;  and  European  nations  had  never 
had  their  attention  sufficiently  drawn  to  the  numerous  advan- 
tages of  water-transport,  till  the  destructive  disasters  of  the 
first  crusaders,  in  attempting  a  march  by  land,  forced  upon  the 
minds  of  their  followers  the  expediency  of  conveying  their 


134  CHIVALRY. 

troops  by  water.  By  the  consequent  frequency  of  voyages  to 
Palestine,  the  arts  of  navigation  and  ship-building  were  rapidly 
improved ;  and  from  this  period  may  be  dated  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  Pisa,  Genoa,  and  Venice. 

21.  The  crusades,  although  immediately  injurious  both  to 
literature  and  religion,  were,  nevertheless,  ultimately  bene- 
ficial. They  commenced  at  a  time  of  the  profoundest  igno- 
rance and  the  grossest  superstition  ;  —  nearly  all  that  remained 
of  ancient  art  and  science  being,  at  that  period,  confined  to 
Constantinople  and  the  more  enlightened  of  the  Saracens ;  — 
during  their  continuance,  military  fame  was  the  chief  object  of 
ambition  to  all  who  aspired  to  distinction  ;  and  that  blind  and 
fanatical  dfevotion  to  the  will  of  the  priesthood,  without  which 
the  people  could 'never  have  been  seduced  into  so  wild  an  en- 
terprise, continued  undiminished.  But  after  two  centuries  of 
disaster,  Europe  began  to  suspect  the  folly  of  these  expedi- 
tions, and  to  doubt  the  infallibility  of  their  promoters  ;  and  the 
human  mind  was  gradually  prepared  for  an  emancipation  from 
bigotry  and  servility. 

22.  It  may  be  observed,  that  if,  by  the  superintendence  of 
Providence,  these  benefits  to  society  grew  out  of  the  crusades, 
they  were  diametrically  opposite  to  what  their  projectors  in- 
tended ;  that  these  were  results  which  they  had  neither  the 
wisdom  to  foresee,  nor  the  virtue  to  design. 


CHIVALRY. 


1.  Chivalry  was  an  institution  in  which  valor,  gallantry,  and 
religion  were  strangely  blended.  It  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  features  in  the  history  of  European  nations 
in  the  Middle  Ages  ;  and,  during  several  centuries,  it  produced 
a  wonderful  influence  upon  their  opinions,  habits,  and  man- 
ners, the  effects  of  which  may  still  be  traced.  Its  distinguish- 
ing features  were  a  romantic  spirit  of  adventure ;  a  love  of 
arms,  and  of  the  rewards  of  valor ;  an  eagerness  to  succor  the 
distressed,  and  to  redress  wrongs ;  high  sentiments  of  honor 
and  religion ;  and  a  devoted  and  respectful  attachment  to  the 
female  sex. 

2.  The  early  history  of  chivalry  is  involved  in  obscurity ; 
and  different  theories  have  been  formed  with  regard  to  the 
period,  the  nation,  and  the  circumstances,  to  which  it  owed  its 
origin.  But  the  best  supported  account  appears  to  be  that 
which  fixes  its  origin,  as  a  regular  institution,  in  the  1 1th  cen 


CHIVALRY.  125 

tury.  Before  this  period,  however,  the  great  principles  of  it 
were  to  be  found  in  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Gothic 
nations,  among  whom  the  profession  of  arms  was  the  only  em- 
ployment which  was  esteemed  honorable,  and  who  were  dis- 
tinguished for  their  delicate  and  respectful  gallantry  to  the 
female  sex.  It  was  embodied  into  form  and  regularity  by  the 
Feudal  Syste?n ;  and  was  afterwards  brought  to  maturity  and 
splendor  by  the  Crusades,  and,  by  the  change  wrought  upon  it 
by  these  expeditions,  was  rendered  as  much  a  religious  as  a 
military  institution.  Some  improvements  in  it  are  supposed 
also  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Saracens. 

3.  Chivalry  pervaded  almost  all  parts  of  Europe  ;  yet  Spain 
and  France  appear  to  have  been  the  countries  in  which  it  was 
first  regularly  formed  into  a  system,  and  where  it  flourished  in 
its  greatest  purity  and  splendor.  In  Germany  also,  at  an  early 
period,  it  arrived  at  maturity ;  but  in  England  it  was  of  later 
birth,  and  slower  growth. 

4.  The  sons  of  noblemen,  who  were  destined  for  chivalry, 
entered,  at  the  age  of  seven  years,  on  a  course  of  education, 
which  was  to  prepare  them  for  the  performance  of  its  duties 
and  the  enjoyment  of  its  honors.  The  place  of  their  educa- 
tion was  the  castle  of  their  father,  or  of  some  neighboring 
noble.  From  the  age  of  7  to  14,  the  appellation  given  to  these 
boys  was  page  or  varlet ;  in  old  English  ballads,  child ;  and  at 
14  they  were  raised  to  the  rank,  and  received  the  title,  of 
esquire,  and  were  then  authorized  to  bear  arms. 

5.  They  were  kept  in  constant  and  active  employment,  and 
waited  on  the  master  and  mistress  of  the  castle  at  home  and 
abroad,  and  became  accustomed  to  obedience  and  courteous 
demeanor.  They  were  surrounded  by  noble  ladies  and  valiant 
knights  ;  and  the  first  impressions  made  on  their  minds  were 
those  of  love,  gallantly,  honor,  and  bravery.  They  were 
taught  to  reverence  chivalry  as  containing  everything  that  was 
alluring  and  honorable  ;  and  that  the  only  means  of  attaining 
the  highest  honors  were,  devotion  to  the  female  sex,  and  skill 
and  courage  in  warfare. 

6.  By  the  ladies  of  the  castle  they  were  taught,  at  the  same 
time,  the  rudiments  of  religion  and  love.  "  The  love  of  God 
and  the  ladies,"  says  Hallain,  "  was  enjoined  as  a  single  duty. 
He  who  was  faithful  and  true  to  his  mistress  was  held  sure  of 
salvation  in  the  theology  of  the  castles."  In  order  that  they 
might  have  opportunity  to  practise,  in  some  degree,  the  in- 
structions which  they  received,  it  was  customary  for  each 
youth  to  select  some  young,  accomplished,  and  virtuous  lady, 
at  whose  feet  he  displayed  all  his  gallantry,  and  who  under* 
took  to  polish  his  manners. 

11* 


126  CHIVALRY. 

7.  The  esquires  were  employed  in  various  subordinate 
offices  in  the  castles,  and  as  attendants  on  the  knights,  till  they 
arrived  at  21,  which  was  the  proper  age  for  admitting  them  to 
the  full  honors  of  knightl)ood.  The  candidate  was  required  to 
prepare  himself  by  ablutions,  by  rigid  fasting,  by  passing  the 
night  in  prayer,  and  by  making  a  solemn  confession  of  his 
sins ;  and,  as  a  type  of  the  purity  of  manners  which  would  be 
required  of  him,  he  was  clothed  in  Avhite. 

8.  Having  performed  the  preliminary  rites,  he  then  entered 
a  church,  and  after  an  examination,  if  he  were  judged  worthy 
of  admission  to  the  order  of  knighthood,  he  received  the  sac- 
rament, and  took  an  bath,  consisting  of  26  articles,  in  which, 
among  other  things,  he  swore  that  he  would  be  a  good,  brave, 
loyal,  just,  generous,  and  gentle  knight,  a  champion  of  the 
church  and  the  clergy,  a  protector  of  ladies,  and  a  redresser 
of  the  wrongs  of  widows  and  orphans. 

9.  While  upon  his  knees,  he  received  from  the  hands  of  the 
knights  and  the  ladies  the  insignia  of  chivalry,  his  spurs, 
cuirass,  coat  of  mail,  and  the  other  parts  of  his  armor,  and, 
in  the  last  place,  his  sword.  The  most  distinguished  chevalier 
then  dubbed  him,  or  bestowed  on  him  the  accolade,  by  giving 
him  a  slight  blow  on  the  shoulder  or  cheek  with  his  sword, 
whicli  has  been  interpreted  as  an  emblem  of  the  last  affront 
which  it  was  lawful  for  him  to  endure. 

10.  The  most  important  part  of  the  equipments  of  a  knight 
was  his  horse ;  his  distinguishing  weapon  was  the  la7ice ;  his 
other  offensive  arms  consisted  of  a  sword,  dagger,  battle-axe, 
and  maces.  His  dress  consisted  of  a  long,  flowing  robe,  which 
reached  down  to  his  heels. 

11.  "  The  virtues  and  endowments  that  were  necessary  to 
form  an  accomplished  knight,"  says  Dr.  Henry,  "  in  the 
flourishing  times  of  chivalry,  were  such  as  these ;  —  beauty, 
strength,  and  agility  of  body ;  great  dexterity  in  dancing, 
wrestling,  hunting,  hawking,  riding,  tilting,  and  every  other 
manly  exercise  ;  the  virtues  of  piety,  chastity,  modesty,  cour- 
tesy, loyalty,  liberality,  sobriety ;  and  above  all,  an  inviolable 
attachment  to  truth,  and  an  invincible  courage." 

12.  Such  was  the  estimation  in  which  knighthood  was  held, 
that,  for  a  long  time,  no  sovereign  could  be  crowned  till  he 
had  been  knighted.  Whoever  had  been  dubbed  became,  as  it 
were,  a  citizen  of  universal  chivalry,  and  possessed  various 
privileges  and  dignities,  which  were  not  limited  to  the  territory 
of  his  sovereign,  but  extended  throughout  a  great  part  of 
Europe.  He  had  a  right  to  roam  through  the  world  in  quest 
of  adventures,  which,  whether  just  or  not  in  their  purpose, 
were  always  esteemed  honorable  in  proportion  as  they  were 
perilous. 


CHIVALRY.  127 

13.  He  was  authorized  to  propose  a  trial  of  skill  with  the 
lance  to  all  those  of  his  order  whom  he  met,  and  to  combat 
them  with  the  utmost  fury,  if  they  did  not  acknowledge  the  la- 
dy to  whom  he  had  devoted  himself,  and  whom  they  had  nev- 
er seen,  the  most  beautiful  in  the  world.  When  he  challenged 
them  to  single  combat,  it  was  in  the  name  of  his  mistress ;  and 
he  established  her  unparalleled  beauty  by  vanquishing  his  an- 
tagonist, and  compelling  him  to  acknowledge  her  superior 
charms.  The  portrait,  the  device,  the  livery,  or  even  the  most 
trifling  gift  of  his  mistress,  he  cherished  with  the  utmost  fond- 
ness. The  crest  of  his  helmet  was  ornamented  with  the  favors 
which  she  had  bestowed  upon  him.  When  the  sovereign  led 
his  army  to  the  attack,  his  never-fa/ying  injunction  was,  "  Let 
every  one  think  of  his  mistress." 

14.  The  influence  of  chivalry  wis  not  limited  to  either  sex. 
The  manners  of  the  ladies  of  rank  were  necessarily  polite  and 
courteous  ;  for  such  they  taught  t?  ose  of  the  chevaliers  to  be  ; 
and  it  was  their  highest  ambition  t )  deserve  and  obtain  the  love 
of  a  valiant  knight.  As  the  laws  of  the  institution  made  it  the 
duty  of  a  knight  to  protect  the  chastity  and  honor  of  the  ladies, 
and  forbade  his  speaking  ill  of  them,  or  tamely  heai'ing  them 
spoken  ill  of  by  others,  it  was  incumbent  on  him  to  warn  them 
against  the  commission  of  every  thing  that  might  lower  them 
in  his  opinion. 

15.  Strictly  decorous  and  respectful  in  his  behavior  towards 
them,  he  expected  they  would  never  forfeit  their  claim  to  such 
behavior.  If,  however,  they  transgressed  the  laws  of  modesty 
or  prudence,  he  did  not  fail  to  stigmatize  their  failings  in  a 
way  that  would  be  keenly  felt.  If  he  passed  the  castle  of  one 
of  this  character,  he  marked,  in  such  a  manner  as  could  not  be 
mistaken,  the  dwelling  of  a  lady  unworthy  to  receive  a  true 
chevalier. 

16.  As  the  knights  were  ambitious  to  gain  the  esteem  of  the 
fair  sex  by  their  heroic  exploits  and  the  protection  which  they 
afforded  them,  so  the  ladies  were  ambitious  to  merit  such  pro- 
tection by  their  virtue.  In  accoi'dance  with  this  is  the  language 
of  Spenser :  — 

It  hath  been  through  all  ages  ever  seen. 

That,  with  the  praise  of  arms  and  chivalry, 
The  prize  of  beauty  still  hath  joined  been; 

And  that  for  reason's  special  privity  : 
For  either  doth  on  otiicr  much  rely  ; 

For  he,  me-secms,  most  fit  the  fair  to  serve, 
That  can  her  best  defend  from  villany  ; 

And  she  most  fit  his  service  doth  deserve, 
That  fairest  is,  and  from  her  faith  will  never  swerve. 

17.  Chivalry  especially  enjoined  the  virtues  of  hospitality, 


128  CHIVALRY. 

humanity,  and  courtesy.  Every  true  and  loyal  knight  was  ex- 
pected to  have  the  door  of  his  castle  constantly  open.  As  soon 
as  one  chevalier  entered  the  castle  of  another,  he  considered 
himself  at  home,  and  was  treated  as  if  he  were  so  ;  every  thing 
that  could  contribute  to  his  comfort  and  his  luxury  was  at  his 
command.  If  he  arrived  wounded,  every  possible  care  was 
taken  of  him  by  the  ladies,  both  young  and  old,  who  were 
proud  of  having  in  their  possession  remedies  proper  for  such 
occasions.  To  a  vanquished  foe  the  most  scrupulous  and  del- 
icate attention  was  paid  :  he  was  treated  rather  as  a  conqueror 
than  as  one  who  had  been  conquered. 

18.  The  favorite  amusement  and  exercise  of  the  knights 
consisted  in  justs  and  tournaments,  the  most  splendid  of  which 
were  celebrated  at  coronations,  royal  marriages,  and  distin- 
guished victories.  "  Every  scenic  performance  of  modern 
times,"  says  Hallam,  "  must  be  tame  in  comparison  of  these 
animating  scenes.  At  a  tournament,  the  space  inclosed  within 
the  lists  was  surrounded  by  sovereign  princes  and  their  noblest 
barons,  by  knights  of  established  renown,  and  all  that  rank  and 
beauty  had  most  distinguished  among  the  fair.  Covered  with 
steel,  and  known  only  by  their  emblazoned  shields,  or  by  the 
favors  of  their  mistresses,  a  still  prouder  bearing,  the  combat- 
ants rushed  forward  to  a  strife  without  enmity,  but  not  without 
danger. 

19.  "  Victory  at  a  tournament  was  little  less  glorious,  and 
perhaps,  at  the  moment,  more  exquisitely  felt,  than  in  the  field  ; 
since  no  battle  could  assemble  such  witnesses  of  valor.  '  Hon- 
or to  the  sons  of  the  brave  ! '  resounded,  amidst  the  din  of  mar- 
tial music,  from  the  lips  of  the  minstrels,  as  the  conqueror  ad- 
vanced to  receive  the  prize  from  his  queen  or  his  mistress ; 
while  the  surrounding  multitude  acknowledged,  in  his  prowess 
of  that  day,  an  augury  of  triumphs  that  might,  in  more  serious 
contests,  be  blended  with  those  of  his  country." 

20.  Absurd  and  ridiculous  as  the  institution  of  chivalry  ap- 
pears, yet  it  had  a  powerful  influence  in  producing  a  favorable 
change  in  the  manners  of  society  in  a  barbarous  age  ;  and  was 
wonderfully  adapted  to  the  taste  and  genius  of  martial  nobles. 
It  infused  humanity  into  war,  at  a  time  when  the  disposition  of 
the  age  made  it  almost  the  constant  business  of  life,  and  the 
ruling  passion  of  persons  of  every  rank  :  it  introduced  cour- 
tesy of  manners,  when  men  were  rude  and  uncultivated  :  it 
exacted  and  produced  a  scrupulous  adherence  to  truth,  at  a 
time  when  its  obligations  were  feebly  felt,  and  the  temptations 
to  falsehood  were  numerous ;  it  imparted  an  additional  impulse 
and  motive  to  a  respectful  and  delicate  attention  to  the  female 
sex,  when  such  attention  was  particularly  necessary  to  them. 


CHIVALRY.  129 

21.  As  chivalry  rose  to  splendor,  and  was  embodied  into 
form  by  the  feudal  system,  so  it  fell  along  with  it.  The  in- 
vention of  gunpowder,  and  the  consequent  change  in  the  mode 
of  war  ;  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing,  and  the  diffusion 
of  knowledge  ;  the  extension  of  commerce,  and  the  increase 
and  distribution  of  wealth,  gradually  produced  the  destruction 
of  the  feudal  system,  and  put  a  period  to  the  existence  of  chiv- 
alry. It  arose  principally  from  the  peculiar  state  of  society, 
the  evils  of  which  it  was  calculated,  in  some  degree,  to  remove 
or  alleviate  ;  it  fell  when  that  state  of  society  and  those  evils 
had  given  way  to  the  general  diffusion  of  wealth  and  of 
knowledge. 

22.  "  The  wild  exploits  of  those  romantic  knights,"  says 
Dr.  Robertson,  "  who  sallied  forth  in  quest  of  adventures,  are 
well  known,  and  have  been  treated  with  proper  ridicule.  The 
political  and  permanent  effects  of  the  spirit  of  chivalry  have 
been  less  observed.  Perhaps  the  humanity  which  accompa- 
nies all  the  operations  of  war,  the  refinements  of  gallantry, 
and  the  point  of  honor,  the  three  chief  circumstances  which 
distinguish  modern  from  ancient  manners,  may  be  ascribed,  in 
a  great  measure,  to  this  whimsical  institution,  seemingly  of  lit- 
tle benefit  to  mankind.  The  sentiments  which  chivalry  in- 
spired had  a  wonderful  influence  on  the  manners  and  conduct 
during  the  12th,  13th,  14th,  and  15th  centuries.  They  were 
so  deeply  rooted,  that  they  continued  to  operate  after  the  vigor 
and  reputation  of  the  institution  itself  began  to  decline." 

23.  But  the  actual  morals  of  chivalry  were  by  no  means 
pure :  its  principles,  like  those  of  other  institutions,  were 
much  superior  to  the  practice  of  its  professors  ;  and  it  fell  far 
short  of  establishing  and  preserving  that  purity  in  the  inter- 
course of  the  sexes  which  it  inculcated.  The  poetry  of  the 
Troubadours,  and  the  tales  and  romances  which  describe  the 
manners  of  chivalry,  all  afford  evidence  of  dissolute  morals. 

24.  The  knights  professed  to  redress  wrongs,  to  relieve  the 
oppressed,  and  to  protect  the  defenceless  ;  but  in  performing 
these  very  acts,  they  were  not  unfrequently  guilty  of  the  gross- 
est injustice  and  violence.  Chivalry  nourished  a  pernicious 
thirst  for  military  renown,  and  cherished  a  love  of  war,  found- 
ed more  on  feelings  of  personal  resentment  than  on  those  of 
public  spirit.  It  indeed  taught  mankind  to  carry  the  civilities 
of  peace  into  the  operations  of  war,  and  to  mingle  politeness 
with  the  use  of  the  sword  ;  but  it  also  gave  birth  to  a  punctil- 
ious refinement,  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  that  fantastic  honor, 
the  bitterness  of  whose  fruits  is  still  felt  in  the  modern  practice 
of  duelling. 

25.  The  origin  of  the  duel  is  traced  to  the  Gothic  nations. 


130  CHIVALRY. 

Under  the  feudal  system,  and  during  tlie  age  of  chivalry,  the 
duel  was  warmly  patronized.  It  so  far  prevailed  among  the 
Germans,  Danes,  and  Franks,  that  none  were  exempted  from 
it  but  women,  sick  people,  cripples,  and  such  as  were  under 
21  years  of  age,  or  above  60.  Even  ecclesiastics,  priests, 
and  monks,  were  obliged  to  find  a  champion  to  fight  in  their 
stead. 

26.  Laws  and  regulations  were  defined  for  it,  in  most  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Europe ;  forms  of  prayer  were  likewise  pre- 
scribed ;  and  the  combatants  prepared  themselves  by  taking 
the  sacrament.  It  was  then  resorted  to  as  a  method  of  discov- 
ering truth  and  preventing  perjury,  with  the  belief  of  the  in- 
terference of  Providence  for  the  punishment  of  the  guilty,  and 
the  protection  of  the  innocent.  It  is  now  practised  as  a  mode 
of  private  revenge  ;  and  its  use  is  no  longer  supported  by  any 
plea  derived  from  reason,  religion,  or  superstition. 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


1.  Different  periods,  as  has  already  been  mentione'd,  havft 
been  adopted  by  different  historians  for  the  commencement  of" 
Modern  History,  —  as  the  Christian  era,  the  downfall  of  the 
Western  Empire  of  the  Romans,  A.  D.  476,  the  establishment 
of  the  New  Empire  of  the  West  under  Charlemagne,  A.  D. 
800,  and  (when  considered  as  distinct  from  the  history  of  the 
Middle  Ages)  the  dovvnfall  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  in  1453. 

2.  But  in  treating  of  the  history  of  the  several  European 
states,  the  most  convenient  method  is  to  begin  with  the  com- 
mencement of  each  respectively,  without  being  confined  to 
any  one  common  period.  The  French  monarchy  dates  from 
the  latter  part  of  the  5th  century ;  but  no  other  one  of  the 
present  sovereignties  of  Europe  traces  its  origin,  by  any  au- 
thentic data,  further  back  than  the  commencement  of  the  9th 
century. 

3.  The  period  that  succeeded  the  downfall  of  the  Eastern 
Empire  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  interesting  in  the 
history  of  man.  On  casting  an  eye  back  to  this  period,  we 
see  a  flood  of  light  suddenly  bursting  upon  the  world ;  man- 
kind waking,  as  from  profound  sleep,  to  a  life  of  activity  and 
bold  adventure  ;  ignorance,  barbarism,  superstition,  and  feudal 
slavery,  retreating  before  advancing  civilization,  knowledge 
religion,  and  freedom. 

4.  Some  of  the  principal  causes  which  produced  the  great 
and  beneficial  changes  in  the  state  of  society  which  then  look 
place,  were  the  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass,  of  gun- 
powder, and  of  the  art  of  printing;  the  discovery  of  America, 
and  of  a  maritime  passage  to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Goop 
Hope ;  the  dispersion  of  the  literary  men  of  Constantinople  to 
the  western  parts  of  Europe,  and  the  Reformation  in  religion. 

5.  In  the  history  of  European  commerce,  the  association  of 
the  Hanse  Towns,  or  Hanseatic  League,  holds  a  conspicuous 
place.  This  was  a  celebrated  confederacy  of  commercial 
cities  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  and  in  the  adjoining  countries. 


132  MODERN   HISTORY. 

The  League  was  formed  before  the  middle  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury, and  among  the  towns  which  were  early  associated  were 
Hamburg,  Lubec,  Bremen,  Cologne,  and  Dantzic.  It  was 
soon  widely  extended  ;  and  it  comprenended,  at  one  period,  85 
towns  ;  and  it  had  four  principal  foreign  depots  or  factories,  — 
at  London,  Bruges,  Novgorod,  and  Bergen.  Regular  assem- 
blies, composed  of  deputies  from  all  the  cities,  were  held,  once 
in  three  years,  at  Lubec,  where  the  archives  were  kept. 

6.  In  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  the  League  was  in  its  most 
flourishing  condition ;  it  became  of  high  political  importance, 
and  made  war  and  peace  as  a  sovereign  state.  But  when  the 
princes  of  the  several  oountries  in  which  these  towns  were 
situated  began  to  afford  an  efficient  protection  to  their  commer- 
cial operations,  and  when  the  discovery  of  America,  and  of 
the  way  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  gave  an  entirely 
new  form  and  direction  to  commerce,  the  Hanseatic  League 
gradually  declined  ;  and  the  last  general  assembly  of  the  depu- 
ties from  the  several  towns  was  held  at  Lubec  in  1630,  when 
the  League  was  dissolved. 

7.  From  the  time  of  the  crusades  to  the  15th  century,  the 
Italians,  more  especially  the  cities  of  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Pisa, 
had  the  chief  management  of  European  commerce.  In  the 
maritime  discoveries,  and  the  commercial  enterprise  of  the 
15th  and  16th  centuries,  Portugal  and  Spain  took  the  lead  ;  and 
on  the  discovery  of  a  passage  to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  the  commerce  of  Europe  was  turned  into  new  channels, 
and  the  Italian  cities  declined. 

8.  Spain  and  Portugal  have  long  since  lost  their  former 
comparative  rank  in  commerce,  wealth,  and  power.  They 
were  succeeded  in  maritime  enterprise  and  activity  by  the 
Netherlands,  Holland,  and  England,  which  became,  in  turn 
the  most  commercial  states  in  Europe. 

9.  The  most  powerful  states  in  Europe,  at  the  present  time, 
are  England,  France,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia ;  the  last 
three  of  which  are  comparatively  very  modern.  The  history 
of  England  is  to  Americans  more  important  than  that  of  any 
other  European  country  ;  and  next  to  that  in  importance  is  the 
history  of  France. 


TRANCE.  183 

FRANCE. 

SECTION  1. 

Merovingian    Kings :     Carlovingian    Kings :     Charlemagne^ 
Sj'c.  —  From  A.  D.  420  to  987. 

1.  The  history  of  France  and  that  of  England  arc  intimately 
connected,  as  they  have,  for  many  centuries,  been  rival  states, 
and,  during  a  great  part  of  the  time,  engaged  in  war  with  each 
other.  The  kings  of  England,  for  a  long  time,  assumed  also 
the  title  of  King  of  France,  as  they  held  possessions  in  that 
country,  more  or  less  extensive,  from  the  time  of  William  the 
Conqueror  to  that  of  Queen  Mary. 

2.  The  ancestors  of  the  modern  French  were  the  Gauls  or 
Celts,  an  enterprising  and  warlike  people  ;  and  it  has  been  fre- 
quently remarked,  that  there  is  a  striking  similitude  between 
the  descendants  and  their  progenitors.  Ancient  Gaul  compre- 
hended, in  addition  to  modern  France,  the  Netherlands,  and 
the  western  part  of  Germany.  It  was  conquered  and  annexed 
to  the  Roman  empire  by  Julius  C(Bsar,  51  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  It  received  its  modern  name  from  the  Franks, 
who  were  originally  a  German  tribe,  inhabiting  the  districts  on 
the  Lower  Rhine  and  the  Weser,  and  who  assumed  the  appel- 
lation of  Franks,  or  Freemen,  from  their  union  to  resist  the 
dominion  of  the  Romans. 

3.  The  Franks  made  an  irruption  into  Gaul  about  the  year 
420,  under  their  leader,  Pharamond,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
succeeded  by  Clodion,  Merovceus,  Childeric,  and  Clovis.  The 
first  race  of  the  French  kings  is  styled  Merovingian,  from 
Merovceus ;  but  the  authentic  history  of  the  monarchy  com- 
mences in  481,  with  his  grandson,  Clovis,  who  is  regarded  as 
its  real  founder,  and  who  achieved  the  conquest  of  France,  by 
several  victories  over  the  Romans,  the  Alemanni,  and  the  Visi- 
goths, and  by  marrying  Clotilda,  a  Christian  princess,  and 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Burgundy.  In  consequence  of  this 
marriage,  Clovis  and  his  subjects  embraced  Christianity.  He 
made  Paris  the  seat  of  his  government,  and  published  the 
Salic  latos,  excluding  females  from  the  throne. 

4.  The  Merovingian  kings,  who  were  generally  weak  sove- 
reigns, continued  to  possess  the  throne  till  751.  In  690,  Pepin 
d'Heristel,  mayor  of  the  palace,  the  first  officer  under  the 
crown,  acquired  the  chief  control,  which  he  retained  for  many 
years,  and  left  it  to  his  son,  Charles  Marlel,  who  gained  a  great 

12 


134  FRANCE. 

victory  over  the  Saracens^  between  Tours  and  Poictiers,  and 
who  was  succeeded  in  office  by  his  son,  Pepin  le  Bref,  or  the 
Short,  so  called  from  his  low  stature,  being  only  four  and  a 
half  feet  high. 

5.  Pepin  governed  France  while  the  weak  Childeric  III. 
was  nominally  king  ;  and  being  a  man  of  talents  and  ambition, 
lie  proposed  the  question  to  Pope  Zachary,  whether  he  himself 
or  Childeric  was  the  best  entitled  to  the  crown.  Zachaiy, 
from  interested  motives,  decided  in  favor  of  Pepin,  who  was 
accordingly  crowned  at  Soissons,  by  St.  Boniface,  Bishop  of 
Mentz,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  second  or  Carhvingian 
race  of  French  kings.  Pepin  recompensed  the  services  done 
him  by  the  pope,  by  turning  his  arms',  during  the  pontificate 
of  Stephen  II.,  who  succeeded  Zachary,  against  the  Lombards 
in  Italy,  and  by  granting  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna  and  other 
territories  to  the  see  of  Rome.  In  this  manner  the  pope  was, 
in  755,  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  temporal  prince. 

6.  Pepin  was  succeeded  by  his  two  sons,  Charles  and  Carlo- 
man  ;  but  the  latter  dying  not  long  after  the  death  of  his  father, 
Charles  possessed  the  undivided  sovereignty.  This  distin- 
guished monarch  is  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  Charle- 
magne, or  Charles  the  Great.  Notwithstanding  the  diminutive 
stature  of  his  father,  he  is  said  to  have  been  seven  feet  in 
height,  of  a  robust  constitution  and  majestic  appearance. 

7.  Charlemagne  was  far  the  greatest  monarch  of  his  age, 
and  distinguished  both  as  a  conqueror  and  a  statesman.  He 
was  engaged  in  war  during  most  of  his  reign,  had  a  long  and 
bloody  contest  with  the  Saxons,  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of 
the  Lombards  in  Italy,  by  defeating  Desiderius  or  Didier, 
their  last  sovereign,  and  made  extensive  conquests  ;  but  he 
sustained  a  great  defeat  by  the  Spaniards,  at  Roncesvalles,  In 
800  he  was  crowned  Emjieror  of  the  West,  by  the  pope.  His 
empire  comprised  France,  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, a  great  part  of  Italy,  and  part  of  Spain.  He  had  no 
permanent  capital,  though  Aix-la-Chapelle  was,  for  a  long 
time,  his  favorite  residence. 

8.  Charlemagne  was  a  luminary  in  a  dark  age,  and  an  emi- 
iP3nt  patron  of  learning.  "He  stands  alone,"  says  Hallam, 
"  like  a  beacon  upon  a  waste,  or  a  rock  in  the  broad  ocean." 
His  court  was  frequented  by  Alcidn  and  other  learned  men ; 
and  he  endeavored  to  dispel  the  profound  ignorance  which 
generally  prevailed.  He  manifested  his  zeal  for  religion  by 
compelling  those  whom  he  subdued  to  receive  Christian  bap- 
tism, on  the  pain  of  being  either  made  slaves  or  of  suffering 
death.  Succeeding  generations,  impressed  with  a  grateful 
sense   of  the   services   which   he   rendered   to   the    church, 


FRANCE.  135 

canonized  his  memory,  and  turned  this  bloody  warrior  into 
an  eminent  saint. 

9.  His  private  character,  thougli  stained  with  vices,  exhibited 
many  estimable  qualities.  On  days  of  ceremony,  he  made  a 
great  display  of  luxury  and  splendor  in  his  apparel ;  but  at 
other  times  he  was  plain  in  his  dress,  and  frugal  in  regard  to 
his  table.  The  economy  of  his  family  was  characteristic  of 
an  age  of  great  simplicity.  He  superintended  his  farms,  and 
trained  his  sons  himself  to  manly  exercises :  the  women  be- 
longing to  his  court  made  use  of  the  needle,  and  managed  the 
distaff;  and  he  took  delight  in  appearing  ornamented  with  the 
productions  of  his  wife  and  daughters. 

10.  Chaiiemagne  was  succeeded,  in  814,  by  his  son,  Louis 
the  Debonair,  whose  reign  was  inglorious  and  turbulent,  and 
who  divided  his  dominions  among  his  sons.  The  quarrels 
of  the  rival  brothers,  which  commenced  before  the  death  of 
their  father,  involved  their  subjects  in  a  sanguinary  war,  and 
the  family  contest  was  decided  in  a  great  battle  on  the  plains 
of  Fontenay,  where  no  less  than  100,000  men  are  said  to  have 
fallen,  and  most  of  the  ancient  nobility  of  France  perished. 
A  new  division  of  the  empire  followed  ;  Charles  the  Bald  re- 
ceiving the  western  part  of  France,  termed  Aquitaine  and 
Neustria ;  Lothaire,  Italy  and  some  of  the  southern  provinces 
of  France  ;  and  Louis,  Germany.  During  the  reign  of  Charles, 
the  Normans,  from  Scandinavia,  commenced  their  invasions  of 
France,  and  burnt  Paris. 

11.  Charles,  after  a  weak  and  inglorious  reign,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Louis  the  Stammerer,  who,  in  order  to  in- 
sure tranquillity  to  his  estates,  made  numerous  grants  of  lands, 
titles,  and  offices  to  his  nobles  and  bishops.  After  a  short 
reign,  he  left  his  kingdom  to  his  two  sons,  Louis  III.  and 
Carloman.  After  the  death  of  these  princes,  the  emperor 
Charles  the  Fat  was  elected  to  the  vacant  throne ;  but  he  gov- 
erned with  so  much  imbecility,  that  he  was  soon  dethroned, 
and  the  imperial  dignity  was  transferre<^to  Germany. 

12.  The  nobility  gave  the  crown  to  Eudes,  till  Charles  the 
Simple  should  attain  to  the  age  of  manhood  ;  and  on  the  death 
of  the  former,  the  latter  was  raised  to  the  throne  ;  but  he  was 
deposed  by  Robert,  the  brother  of  Eudes ;  and  Robert  was 
succeeded  by  his  son-in-law  Rodolph.  During  the  reign  of 
Charles  the  Simple,  the  Normans,  under  Rollo,  invaded  and 
took  Neustria,  and,  in  912,  established  themselves  in  the  coun- 
try, which  from  them  was  named  Norinandy. 

13.  During  the  succeeding  reigns  of  Louis  IV.  and  Lo- 
thaire, Hugh  the  Great,  the  most  powerful  nobleman  in  France, 
obtained  the  chief  direction  of  the  government ;  and  in  the 


136  FRANCE. 

reign  of  Louis  V.,  lie  ^vas  succeeded  in  his  authority  by  his 
Bon  Hugh  Capet,  who,  on  the  death  of  Louis,  placed  himself 
upon  the  throne,  and  founded  the  third  or  Capetian  race  of 
French  kings,  in  987. 


SECTION  II. 

Capetian  Kings^  from  Hugh  Capet  to  Philip  VI.  of  Valois. 
—  From  A.  D.  987  to  1328. 

1.  Hugh  Capet,  an  able  and  politic  sovereign,  added  con- 
siderable territories  to  the  kingdom,  and  made  Paris  his  capi- 
tal. He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Robert,  who  was  com- 
manded by  the  pope  to  divorce  his  queen  Bertha,  because  she 
was  his  cousin  in  the  fourth  degree.  But  he  refused  to  com- 
ply, and  was  excommunicated.  He  was,  in  consequence,  re- 
duced to  the  most  abject  condition,  being  abandoned  by  all  his 
courtiers,  as  a  person  infected  with  the  plague  ;  and  Avas  finally 
compelled  to  submit. 

2.  The  quiet  of  his  son  and  successor,  Henry  I.,  was  dis- 
turbed by  the  hostile  designs  of  his  unnatural  mother,  Co7i- 
stantia.  During  his  reign  a  law  was  enacted,  called  the  truce 
of  God,  prohibiting  private  combats  between  Thursday  and 
Sunday.  This  was  all  that  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  power 
united  could,  in  this  age,  do  to  check  the  general  rage  for 
duelling. 

3.  The  reign  of  Philip  L,  the  successor  of  Henry,  was  sig- 
nalized by  the  first  crusade,  preached  by  Peter  the  Hermit ; 
and  by  the  invasion  of  France,  in  1087,  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, of  England.  From  this  event  may  be  dated  the  long- 
continued  rivalship  and  hostility  between  the  French  and 
English  monarchies,  which  form  a  leading  feature  in  their 
history  during  several  centuries. 

4.  Louis  VI.,  surnamed  the  Fat,  the  son  of  Philip,  was  an 
able  and  accomplished  sovereign,  and  had  a  prosperous  and 
useful  reign.  On  his  death-bed  he  addressed  his  son,  who 
succeeded  him,  in  the  following  words :  "  Remember  that 
royalty  is  nothing  more  than  a  public  charge,  of  which  you 
must  rencker  a  veiy  strict  account  to  Him  who  makes  kings, 
and  who  will  judge  them." 

5.  Louis  Vn.,  surnamed  the  Young,  having  been  educated 
in  an  abbey,  was  zealous  for  the  religion  of  the  age.  The 
abbeys,  at  this  pei'iod,  produced  some  eminent  men,  among 
whom  were  Suger,  abbot  of  St.  Denis,  a  great  politician ;  St. 
Bernard^  abbot  of  Clairvau.x,  famous  for  his  eloquence  and 


FRANCE.  137 

zeal ;  and  Abelard,  celebrated  for  his  genius,  and  his  learning 
in  scliolastic  theology,  and  not  less  so  for  his- unhappy  connec- 
tion with  Heloise. 

6.  A  civil  war  was  excited  on  account  of  the  refusal  of 
Louis  to  assent  to  -the  choice  of  an  archbishop,  who  was  sup- 
ported by  the  pope.  The  king  entered  the  town  of  Viti-y  at 
the  head  of  a  large  army,  and  caused  the  parochial  church,  in 
which  the  rebellious  inhabitants  had  taken  refuge,  to  be  set  on 
fire,  and  1,300  persons  perished  in  the  flames.  The  remorse 
which  Louis  felt  for  this  act  of  cruelty  and  sacrilege  gave  I'ise 
(•o  the  second  crusade,  which  was  preached  by  St.  Bernard. 

7.  Louis  had  married  Eleanor,  heiress  of  the  great  duchy 
of  Guienne,  whom  he  divorced  for  her  levities  and  vices ;  and, 
in  six  weeks,  she  married  Henry  Plantagenet,  Earl  of  Anjou, 
who  became,  the  next  year,  Henry  II.  of  England,  and  who, 
by  this  marriage,  acquired  a  great  addition  to  his  possessions 
in  France. 

8.  Philip  II.,  surnamed  Augustus,  on  account  of  his  ex- 
ploits, surpassed,  in  systematic  ambition  and  military  enter- 
prise, all  the  sovereigns  who  had  reigned  in  France  since  the 
time  of  Charlemagne.  He  signalized  the  commencement  of 
his  reign  by  a  tyrannical  act,  in  confiscating  the  property  of 
the  Jews  in  France,  and  banishing  them  from  his  dominions ; 
he  soon  after  joined  Richard  L  of  England  in  the  third 
crusade. 

9.  John,  who  succeeded  Richard  in  the  throne  of  England, 
was  suspected  of  having  murdered  his  nephew,  Arthur  ;  and 
for  this  Philip  summoned  him,  as  his  vassal,  to  be  tried  by  a 
court  of  his  peers  ;  but  John,  refusing  to  obey  the  summons, 
was  declared  guilty  of  felony,  and  his  possessions  were  con- 
fiscated. Philip,  with  his  troops,  in  1204,  invaded  and  made  a 
conquest  of  Normandy,  and  reunited  it  lo  the  crown  of  France  ; 
and  the  King  of  England  then  lost  all  his  territories  in  tha« 
country,  with  the  exception  of  Guienne. 

10.  Philip,  who  left  his  kingdom  about  twice  as  large  as  he 
found  it,  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  VIII.,  who  was  sur- 
named  the  Lion,  on  account  of  his  valor,  and  whose  short  reign 
was  chiefly  distinguished  by  a  barbarous  crusade  against  the 
Albigenses. 

11.  Louis  IX.,  commonly  called  Saint  Louis,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  at  the  age  of  12  years ;  and  during  his  minority,  his 
mother,  Blanche  of  Castile,  filled  the  office  of  regent  with 
great  firmness  and  courage.  St.  Louis  was  distinguished  for 
his  uprightness,  benevolence,  and  piety,  and  with  regard  to  the 
purity  of  intention,  has,  perhaps,  scarcely  been  excelled  by 
any  sovereign  that  ever  sat  on  a  throne  ;  and  his  long  reign 

12* 


138  FRANCE. 

was,  in  many  respects,  highly  beneficial  to  his  country.  His 
principal  weakness  was  superstition,  which,  in  a  great  measure, 
effaced  the  good  effects  of  his  virtues,  and  which  prompted 
him  to  engage  in  two  disastrous  crusades,  in  the  second  of 
which  he  died  near  Tunis. 

12.  St.  Louis  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Philip  III.,  sur- 
named  the  Hardy,  or  Bold,  because,  when  a  prisoner  with  hia 
father  in  Africa,  he  had  the  boldness  to  punish  a  soldier  who 
treated  him  with  insolence  ;  or,  as  others  say,  because  he  ex- 
tricated the  remains  of  the  army  in  Africa,  and  brought  the 
crusade,  which  was  undertaken  by  his  father,  to  a  favorable 
issue.  During  this  reign,  an  insurrection  took  place  in  Sicily, 
which  was  occasioned  by  the  tyranny  of  Charles  of  Anjou, 
uncle  of  Philip,  who  had  recently  become  king  of  that  island  ; 
and  8  or  10,000  Frenchmen  were  massacred,  on  the  evening 
of  Easter-day,  in  1282,  a  transaction  called  the  massacre  of 
the  Sicilian  Vespers. 

13.  Philip  IV.,  surnamed  the  Fair,  from  the  beauty  of  his 
countenance  and  the  elegance  of  his  person,  was  distinguished 
for  his  ambition,  dissimulation,  perfidy,  and  cruelty,  and  was 
engaged  in  continual  contests.  By  endeavoring  to  raise  money 
from  the  clergy,  as  well  as  from  his  other  subjects,  he  was  in- 
volved in  a  quarrel  with  the  ambitious  and  haughty  Pope  Boni- 
face VIII.,  who  prohibited  the  clergy  from  paying  the  assess- 
ment, laid  France  under  an  interdict,  and  issued  a  bull,  declaring 
"  that  the  Vicar  of  Christ  is  vested  with  full  authority  over  the 
kings  and  kingdoms  on  the  earth." 

14.  The  arrogant  pontiff  died  during  the  contest,  and  Philip 
managed  to  get  Clement  V.,  a  Frenchman  devoted  to  his  in- 
terests, elected  his  successor,  and  transferred,  in  1308,  the  seat 
of  the  papacy  from  Rome  to  Avignon,  where  it  continued  70 
years.  This  removal  greatly  exasperated  the  Italians,  who,  in 
consequence,  became  hostile  to  the  pope,  and  styled  his  resi- 
dence at  Avignon,  "  The  Babylonish  captivity  of  the  Holy 
See."  —  The  fraternity  of  Knights  Templars,  a  religious  and 
military  order  of  great  wealth,  was  abolished  by  Philip,  and 
their  properly  confiscated ;  but  a  measure  more  creditable  to 
him  was  his  instituting  parliaments. 

15.  Philip  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  X.,  surnamed 
Hutin,  that  is,  the  Stubborn,  or  Wrangler,  whose  short  reign 
was  signalized  by  the  execution  of  his  prime  minister,  Marigni, 
for  pretended  crimes,  though,  in  reality,  for  his  wealth.  Philip 
v.,  the  Long,  on  the  death  of  Jolm  J.,  the  infant  son  o(  Philip 
IV.,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  His  reign  is  noted  chiefly  for  a 
barbarous  massacre  and  banishment  of  the  Jews,  who  were 
accused  of  h?ving  poisoned  the  wells  and  fountains  of  water 


FRANCE.  139 

His  successor,  Charles  IV.,  the  Fair,  was  the  last  of  three 
brothers,  whose  reigns  were  all  short,  and -who  were  always 
necessitous  in  respect  to  their  finances,  and  little  scrupulous 
with  regard  to  their  methods  of  improving  them. 


SECTION  III. 

Branch  of  Valois  :  —  Philip  VI. ;  John  II.  ;  Charles  V.  ; 
Charles  VI. ;  Charles  VII. ;  Louis  XL  ;  Charles  VIII.  — 
From  A.  D.  1328  to  1498. 

1.  Philip  the  Fair  left  three  sons,  Louis  Hutin,  Philip  the 
Long,  and  Charles  the  Fair,  who  were  all  successively  kings 
of  France,  but  who  all  died  without  leaving  any  male  heirs ; 
and  one  daughter,  Isabella,  Queen  of  England,  and  mother  of 
Edward  III.  On  the  death  of  Charles  the  Fair,  the  male 
succession  to  the  throne  devolved  on  Philip  VI.  of  Valois, 
Charles's  cousin-german ;  and  his  title  was  universally  ac- 
knowledged and  supported  by  the  French  nation. 

2.  But  Edward  III.  of  England  was  a  nearer  relative  on 
the  female  side,  and  he  asserted  his  claim  in  right  of  his 
mother.  This  claim  gave  rise  to  those  contests  for  the  French 
crown  by  the  kings  of  England,  which  are  so  famous  in  the 
history  of  both  countries.  Edward  invaded  France  with  an 
army  of  30,000  men,  in  order  to  enforce  his  claim,  gained  the 
famous  battle  of  Cressij,  in  1346,  and  besieged  and  took  Calais. 
—  In  the  midst  of  these  misfortunes,  Philip  had  the  satisfaction 
of  seeing  Dauphiny  annexed  to  the  crown  of  France,  by  Hu- 
bert, the  last  count,  on  condition  that  the  king's  eldest  son 
should  bear  the  title  of  Dauphin. 

3.  Philip  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John  II.,  surnamed  the 
Good,  who  was  still  more  unfortunate  than  his  father,  being 
utterly  defeated,  in  1356,  by  the  English,  under  the  Black 
Prince,  near  Poictiers,  and  carried  a  prisoner  to  London, 
where  he  died. 

4.  During  the  captivity  of  John,  the  kingdom  was  thrown 
into  the  greatest  disorder  and  confusion ;  but  soon  after  his 
son,  Charles  V.,  surnamed  the  Wise,  ascended  the  throne,  the 
condition  of  the  country  began  to  improve.  This  distinguished 
sovereign  resolved  to  make  France  a  match  for  England  ;  and, 
in  order  to  effect  this  object,  he  deemed  it  necessary  to  restore 
tranquillity  to  the  people,  and  inspire  them  with  confidence  in 
the  government.  He  raised  to  the  office  of  Constable  of 
France  the  celebrated  Da  Guesclin,  who  was  one  of  the  great- 


140  FRANCE. 

est  generals  of  the  age,  though  he  is  represented  as  so  illlterata 
that  he  was  unable  to  read  or  write.  The  French,  under  his 
command,  drove  into  Spain  the  banditti  that  had  ravaged  the 
country,  routed  Charles,  king  of  Navarre,  and  expelled  the 
English  from  all  their  possessions  in  France,  except  Bour- 
deaux,  Bayonne,  and  Calais. 

5.  Charles  was  one  of  the  best  sovereigns  that  have  sat  on 
the  throne  of  France  ;  a  sagacious  statesman,  a  beneficent 
lawgiver,  a  patron  of  literature,  and  an  excellent  man  in  his 
private  character.  His  father  left  him  a  library  of  only  20 
volumes  ;  to  which  he  added  900,  which  rendei'ed  it  one  of  the 
greatest  libraries  then  existing  ;  and  it  was  an  immense  number 
for  that  period,  when  printing  was  not  yet  invented.     Charles 

•  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  royal  library  at  Paris, 
which  is  now  the  largest  library  in  the  world. 

6.  This  eminent  sovereign  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles 
VI.,  styled  the  Well-beloved,  a.  weak  prince,  subject  to  insanity, 
which,  at  last,  reduced  him  almost  to  idiocy.  His  life  and 
his  reign  were  alike  miserable,  and  all  the  fruits  of  the  wisdom 
of  his  father's  government  were  soon  lost.  His  queen,  Isa- 
bella of  Bavaria,  was  of  most  infamous  character,  and  the 
court  was  notorious  for  profligacy.  The  kingdom  was  gov- 
erned by  a  succession  of  regents,  whose  misconduct  occa- 
sioned seditions  and  rebellions. 

7.  During  this  calamitous  state  of  France,  Henry  V.  of 
England  invaded  the  country,  gained,  in  1415,  the  memorable 
victory  of  Agincourt,  and  after  obtaining  other  advantages,  he 
concluded  the  treaty  of  Troyes,  by  which  his  succession  to  the 
throne,  on  the  death  of  Charles,  was  acknowledged.  Henry 
and  Charles  both  died  soon  after  this  transaction. 

8.  Charles  VII.,  afterwards  surnamed  the  Victorious,  son 
of  Charles  VI.,  asserted  his  right  to  the  crown ;  and  the  infant 
Henry  VI.  of  England  was  also  proclaimed  King  of  France, 
under  the  regency  of  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  The 
English  undertook  the  siege  of  Orleans,  a  place  of  the  utmost 
importance,  and  pushed  their  designs  so  successfully,  that  the 
affairs  of  Charles  seemed  almost  desperate,  when  they  were 
suddenly  restored  by  one  of  the  most  marvellous  transactions 
recorded  in  history. 

9.  An  obscure  country  girl,  27  years  of  age,  who  had 
lived  in  the  humble  station  of  a  servant  at  an  inn,  over- 
threw the  power  of  England.  This  was  that  wonderful  hero- 
ine, Joan  of  Arc,  otherwise  called  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  who 
appeared  at  this  juncture,  pretending  to  be  Divinely  commis- 
sioned to  deliver  her  oppressed  country,  and  promising  to  raise 


FRANCE.  141 

the  siege  of  Orleans,  and  to  conduct  the  king  to  Rheims  to  b« 
crowned. 

10.  Her  mission  was  pronounced  by  an  assembly  of  divines 
to  be  supernatural ;  and,  at  her  own  request,  she  was  armed 
cap'd-pie,  dressed  like  a  man,  mounted  on  horseback,  entered 
Orleans  at  the  head  of  the  French  troops,  and  actually  com- 
pelled the  English  to  raise  the  siege  (14S9).  Charles,  in  obe- 
dience to  her  exhortations,  proceeded  to  Rheims,  which  was 
then  in  possession  of  the  English,  entered  it  without  difficulty, 
and  was  there  crowned.  Joan  then  declared  that  her  mission 
was  ended,  and  requested  leave  to  retire ;  but  her  presence 
was  thought  still  necessary,  and,  being  detained,  she  afterwards 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  who  condemned  her  for 
witchcraft,  and  caused  her  to  be  burnt  alive  at  Rouen. 

11.  The  French  gained  further  victories,  and  the  English 
were  finally  expelled  from  all  their  possessions  in  the  country, 
except  Calais.  Charles  now  directed  his  attention  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  internal  condition  of  his  kingdom,  and  was  a 
useful  and  popular  sovereign.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was 
imbittered  by  the  undutiful  and  rebellious  conduct  of  his  son, 
the  Dauphin,  by  whom  he  was  in  such  fear  of  being  poisoned, 
that  lie  is  said  to  have  died  through  want  of  sustenance. 

12.  Louis  XL,  who  was  an  odious  compound  of  dissimu- 
lation, profligacy,  j^ruelty,  and  superstition,  is  sometimes  styled 
the  Tiherius  of  France  ;  yet  he  obtained  from  the  pope  the  title 
of  Most  Christian,  a  title  ever  since  annexed  to  the  name  of  the 
French  kings.  He  possessed,  however,  considerable  talents, 
great  application  to  business,  and  affability  to  his  inferiors ; 
and  he  was  the  author  of  many  wise  laws  and  excellent  regu- 
lations for  the  encouragement  of  commerce,  and  for  promoting 
the  administration  of  justice. 

13.  It  was  his  policy  to  humble  the  feudal  nobles,  who  formed 
"a  confederacy  against  him,  and  engaged  in  a  contest  to  preserve 
their  authority,  entitled  "  the  war  of  the  public  good."  The 
barbarity  of  the  public  executions  during  his  reign  is  almost 
incredible :  his  own  life  was  rendered  miserable,  especially 
towards  its  close,  by  the  knowledge  of  his  being  generally 
hated,  and  by  the  torments  of  a  guilty  conscience. 

14.  Charles  VIIL,  the  son  of  Louis,  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
at  the  age  of  13  years.  He  was  mild  in  his  disposition  and 
courteous  in  his  manners,  and  received  the  surname  of  the 
Affable,  or  Civil.  His  father  had  acquired  a  claim  to  the  king- 
dom of  Naples  ;  and,  on  coming  of  age,  he  engaged  in  an  ex- 
pedition for  the  conquest  of  that  country,  which  was  easily 
accomplished  ;  but  the  possession  of  it  was  soon  lost. 


1^  FRAMCE. 


SECTION  IV. 

Louis  XII. ;  Francis  I. ;  Henry  II. ;    Francis  II. ;  Charles 
IX. ;  Henry  III.  —  From  A.  D.  1498  to  1589. 

1.  Charles  VIII.,  who  was  the  last  of  the  direct  line  of  the 
house  of  Valois,  was  succeeded  by  Louis  XII.,  Duke  of  Or- 
leans, great-grandson  of  Charles  V.  He  was  a  beneficent  and 
popular  sovereign,  though  injudicious  and  unfortunate  in  his 
enterprises.  Being  frugal  in  his  policy,  he  diminished  the 
taxes  and  burdens  of  his  subjects,  and  gained  the  title  of 
"  the  Father  of  his  People."  He  retained  the  ministers  of 
the  late  king  in  office,  even  those  who  had  treated  him  ill  be- 
fore he  came  to  the  throne.  "  It  is  unworthy  of  the  King  of 
France,"  said  he,  "  to  punish  the  injuries  done  to  the  Duke  of 
Orleans." 

2.  Near  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  he  reduced  Milan 
and  Genoa,  and  afterwards  prosecuted  his  claim  to  Naples; 
but  though,  by  the  aid  of  his  generals,  the  celebrated  Chevalier 
Bayard  and  Gaston  de  Foix,  he  obtained  some  advantages,  he 
was  ultimately  unsuccessful,  and  became  the  dupe  of  his 
allies,  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and  the  infamous  Pope  Alexander 
VI. ;  and  the  former,  by  treachery,  got  possession  of  the  whole 
of  Naples. 

3.  At  this  period,  the  republic  of  Venice,  on  account  of  its 
wealth,  acquired  by  commerce,  excited  the  envy  and  jealousy 
of  its  neighbors,  particularly  of  the  politic  and  ambitious  Pope 
Julius  II.,  who  projected  against  it  the  famous  League  of 
Camhray,  in  1508,  which  was  composed  of  the  Pope,  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  and  the  Kings  of  France  and  Spain.  Louis 
entered  with  spirit  into  the  war  against  Venice,  and  gained  the 
famous  victory  of  Agnadello.  But  the  confederates  afterwards 
quarrelled  with  each  other,  and  a  new  league  was  formed 
against  France. 

4.  The  French,  under  the  command  of  Gaston  de  Foix, 
gained  a  victory  over  the  new  confederates  at  Ravenna,  but 
it  cost  them  the  life  of  their  commander.  The  death  of  this 
celebrated  hero  was  fatal  to  Louis,  for  he  soon  afterwards  lost 
all  the  places  which  he  possessed  in  Italy,  and  was  compelled 
to  evacuate  the  country.  In  the  midst  of  his  preparations  to 
recover  these  losses,  Louis  died  suddenly,  and  the  exclamation 
of  "  The  good  king  is  dead  !  "  was  heard  on  every  side. 

5.  Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Angouleme,  and  nephew  of  Louia 
XII.,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  at  the  age  of  21  years.     He  was 


FRANCE.  143 

uf  a  romantic  turn,  fond  of  war,  and  eager  for  glory ;  and  ho 
departed  from  the  frugal  maxims  of  his  predecessor,  and  soon 
distinguished  himself  by  the  conquest  of  the  Milanese. 

6.  In  1519,  on  the  death  of  Maxi7nilian,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, Francis  and  Charles  V.  (who  was  then  King  of  Spain) 
became  rival  candidates  for  the  imperial  crown.  Francis, 
speaking  with  Charles  respecting  the  object  of  their  competi- 
tion, said,  with  his  natural  vivacity  and  frankness,  "  We  are 
suitors  to  the  same  mistress ;  the  more  fortunate  will  win  her, 
but  the  other  must  remain  contented." 

7.  Charles  was  the  successful  candidate  ;  and  Francis,  whose 
heart  was  too  much  set  upon  the  prize  to  lose  it  with  quiet 
feelings,  retired  disappointed,  and  thirsting  for  revenge.  Th«. 
two  rivals  were  now  declared  enemies,  and  their  mutual  claims 
on  each  other's  dominions  were  the  subject  of  perpetual  hos- 
tility during  nearly  the  whole  of  their  long  reigns. 

8.  Theireign  of  Charles  V.  forms  a  distinguished  period  in 
history,  —  memorable  not  only  for  the  wars  and  contests 
among  the  states  of  Europe,  but  still  more  so  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Reformation,  the  advancement  of  literature, 
the  extension  of  commerce,  and  the  impulse  given  to  the  prog- 
ress of  society.  Charles  was  the  greatest  sovereign  of  the 
age,  and  superior  to  his  rival,  Francis,  both  in  policy  and 
power.  Other  distinguished  sovereigns  of  the  same  age  were 
Henry  VIIL  of  England,  who  was  courted  by  both  of  the 
rival  monarchs,  and,  in  some  degree,  involved  in  their  wars ; 
Solyman  the  Magnificent,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  a  formidable 
enemy  of  Charles ;  Gustavus  Vasa  of  Sweden ;  and  Pope 
Leo  X. 

9.  In  the  contest  between  the  two  rivals,  the  first  hostile  at- 
tack was  made  by  Francis  on  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  which 
was  won  and  lost  in  the  space  of  a  few  months.  The  emperor 
attacked  Picardy,  and  his  troops,  at  the  same  time,  drove  the 
I'rench  out  of  the  Milanese.  Francis  quarrelled  with  his  best 
general,  the  Constable  of  Bourhon,  who,  in  revenge,  deserted 
to  the  emperor,  and  was  by  him  invested  with  the  chief  com- 
mand of  his  armies.  The  French  king  marched  into  Italy 
with  great  success,  and  laid  siege  to  Favia ;  but  was  here,  in 
1525,  defeated  by  Bourbon,  and  taken  prisoner. 

10.  Francis  was  detained  some  time  at  Madrid  by  Charles, 
who  compelled  him  to  comply  with  disadvantageous  terms  of 
peace.  After  being  set  at  liberty,  and  having  passed  the  bound  • 
aries  between  Spain  and  Franco,  he  mounted  his  horse,  and, 
waving  his  hand  over  his  head,  cxultingly  exclaimed,  several 
times,  "  I  am  yet  a  king  !  "  Charles  had  not  treated  him  with 
generosity,  having  extorted  from  him  more  promises  than  a 


144  FRANCE. 

king,  restored  to  freedom,  would  be  likely  to  perform,  and 
more  than  his  subjects  would  assent  to.  The  violations  of  this 
treaty  occasioned,  between  the  two  sovereigns,  insulting  chal- 
lenges and  new  wars. 

11.  After  war  had  been  prosecuted  with  various  success,  a 
truce  was  at  length  agreed  upon,  and  a  circumstance  took 
place,  which  brought  the  rival  monarchs,  who  had  been  en- 
gaged 20  years  in  hostilities  with  each  other,  to  a  personal 
interview,  in  1538,  at  Aigues  Mortes^  in  the  south  of  France. 
On  meeting,  they  vied  with  each  other  in  expressions  of  respect 
and  friendship.  The  next  year,  Charles  obtained  permission 
of  Francis  to  pass  through  France  on  his  way  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  was  entertained,  during  a  stay  of  six  days  in  Paris, 
with  great  magnificence. 

12.  Charles  having  afterwards  refused  to  give  up  Milan  to 
France,  as  he  had  promised,  the  war  was  again  renewed  with 
redoubled  animosity ;  but  its  final  issue,  as  had  usually  been 
the  case,  was  unfavorable  to  the  designs  of  the  King  of  France, 
who  died  immediately  after  the  restoration  of  peace. 

13.  Though  Francis  was  engaged  in  war  during  the  whole 
of  his  reign,  and  was  unsuccessful  in  his  projects,  yet  he  left 
his  kingdom  in  a  flourishing  condition.  He  was  a  patron  of 
literature  and  the  arts,  which  made  great  progress  in  France 
during  his  reign  ;  and  at  this  period,  the  French  court  acquired 
much  of  that  external  polish  and  refinement  for  which  it  has 
been  since  distinguished. 

14.  Francis  possessed,  in  a  high  degree,  those  qualities 
which  captivate  the  multitude, —  impetuous  courage,  great  de- 
cision and  activity  of  mind,  a  fi-ank  disposition,  and  a  generous 
heart ;  and  there  was  a  polish  about  his  manners,  an  amiable- 
ness  about  his  more  common  actions  and  his  mode  of  perform- 
ing them,  and  a  delicacy  and  strictness  of  honor  about  his 
whole  conduct,  which  characterize  a  finished  gentleman.  Yet 
he  was  far  from  being  actuated  by  a  sense  of  justice  and  good 
faith  in  his  public  character ;  nor  were  his  private  morals  free 
from  reproach.  He  formed  his  plans  with  too  little  delibera- 
tion, and  was  wanting  in  perseverance.  It  was  his  misfortune 
to  contend  with  a  rival,  who  was  more  than  a  match  for  him  in 
policy  and  resources. 

15.  Henry  II.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Francis,  was  brave, 
affable,  and  polite,  in  some  respects  resembling  his  father,  yet 
possessing  fa.  \ess  talent,  and  easily  governed  by  favorites. 
His  reign,  which  was  13  years  in  duration,  was  spent  in  war, 
chiefly  with  Charles  V.,  and  his  son,  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 
Charles  sustained  a  great  loss  at  the  siege  of  Melz ;  but  Philip 


FRANCE.  145 

obtained  over  Henry,  in  1557,  the  famous  victory  of  St. 
Quenlin,  in  commemoration  of  which  he  built  the  palace  of 
the  Escurial, 

16.  This  war,  the  success  of  which  had  not  been  much  to 
the  satisfaction  of  either  party,  was  terminated  by  the  treaty 
of  Chateau  Cavibresis.  The  reign  of  Henry  was  signalized 
by  the  recovery  of  Calais  from  the  English,  and  by  the  in- 
crease of  those  persecutions  of  the  Calvinists^  or  Protestants^ 
often  also  called  Huguenots,  which  had  been  begun  in  the 
reign  of  his  father,  and  which  gave  rise  to  the  civil  wars  which 
distracted  France  during  the  three  succeeding  reigns. 

17.  The  successor  of  Henry  II.  was  his  son,  Francis  IL, 
the  first  husband  of  Mary,  afterwards  Queen  of  Scots,  who 
died  after  a  reign  of  one  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  broth- 
er, Charles  IX.,  then  a  boy  only  ten  years  old,  who  had  for  his 
guardian  his  mother,  Catherine  de  Medici^  an  ambitious,  in- 
triguing, and  unprincipled  woman. 

18.  At  this  time,  the  Protestant  religion  had  spread  exten- 
sively in  France,  and  was  professed  by  some  men  of  great  in- 
fluence at  court,  among  whom  were  the  Prince  of  Condi  and 
Admiral  Coligny. 

19.  At  the  head  of  the  Catholics  was  the  ambitious  and 
powerful  family  of  the  Guises,  consisting  of  five  brothers,  the 
most  prominent  of  whom  were  the  Duke  of  Guise  and  the 
Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  who  were  leading  men  in  the  govern 
inent.  To  the  intolerance  and  cruelty  of  this  family  the 
Protestants  attributed  all  their  calamities  ;  and  the  conspiracy 
of  Amhoise  was  formed  for  the  destruction  of  the  Catholic 
leaders.  It  was,  however,  discovered,  and  about  1,200  con- 
spirators were  massacred  and  executed. 

20.  In  1561,  a  public  conference  was  held  for  discussing  the 
points  in  dispute  between  the  two  parties.  In  this  discussion, 
Theodore  Beza  defended  the  cause  of  the  Protestants,  and  the 
Cardinal  of  Lorraine  that  of  the  Catholic  church,  before  the 
king,  the  princes  of  the  blood,  and  a  number  of  nobles  aful 
dignified  ecclesiastics.  The  differences,  however,  were  not  to 
be  decided  by  words ;  but  not  long  after,  an  edict  was  publish- 
ed, granting  liberty  to  the  Protestants  to  exercise  their  worship 
without  the  walls  of  towns.  But  this  edict  being  soon  violated, 
both  parties  flew  to  arms,  and  commenced  the  sanguinary  civil 
war  which,  for  a  long  time,  harassed  the  kingdom. 

21.  The  Catholics,  under  the  command  of  Guise  and  Mont- 
morency, defeated  the  Protestants,  commanded  by  Conde  and 
Coligny,  in  several  engagements ;    but   the    latter  were   still 

13 


146  FRANCE. 

powerful,  and  obtained,  in  1570,  conditions  of  peace,  which 
granted  them  amnesty  and  liberty  of  conscience.  But  this 
treaty  of  peace,  so  far  as  Catherine  de  Medici  and  her  party 
were  concerned,  was  an  act  of  treachery,  got  up  for  the  pur- 
pose of  luring  the  Protestant  chiefs  to  their  destruction. 

22.  The  marriage  of  Henry  of  Navarre  (afterwards  Henrt) 
IV.  of  France)  with  Margaret,  King  Charles's  sister,  was 
celebrated  with  great  pomp  on  the  18th  of  August,  1572. 
Most  of  the  Protestant  nobility  and  gentry,  with  Admiral  Colig- 
ny  at  their  head,  were  induced  to  attend  on  the  occasion ;  and 
three  or  four  days  were  spent  in  all  sorts  of  festivities.  A 
plan  for  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  having  been  arranged, 
the  execution  of  it  was  intrusted  to  the  Dukes  of  Guise,  Anjou, 
and  Aumale,  Montpensier,  and  Marshal  Tavannes.  At  a  very 
early  hour  in  the  morning  of  the  24th,  St.  Bartholomew's  day^ 
the  signal  was  given,  and  the  work  of  slaughter  commenced  ; 
and,  before  five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  Admiral  Coligny  and 
his  friends,  without  regard  to  age  or  sex,  were  murdered  in  cold 
blood.  The  court  leaders,  as  they  galloped  through  the  streets, 
shouted,  "  Death  to  the  Huguenots  !  —  treason  !  —  courage  !  — 
kill  every  man  of  them  !  —  it  is  the  king's  orders !  "  The  fury 
of  the  populace  was  excited  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  could  not 
easily  be  restrained  ;  the  slaughter  was  partially  continued  for 
three  days ;  and,  to  gi'atify  private  hatred  or  revenge,  many 
Catholics  were  slain  by  the  hand  of  Catholic  assassins.  . 

23.  This  inhuman  butchery,  which  was  commenced  at  Paris, 
was  extended  throughout  France,  and  the  whole  number  mur- 
dered is  stated  by  Sully  at  70,000 ;  though  some  state  it  at 
only  25,000.  The  French  historian,  De  Thou  [Thuanus],  ob- 
serves of  this  massacre,  that  "  No  example  of  equal  barbarity 
is  to  be  found  in  all  antiquity,  or  in  the  ennals  of  the  world." 

24.  Charles,  who  is  represented  by  some  to  have  given  his 
consent  with  reluctance  to  the  plot,  after  having  done  it,  ex- 
pressed the  hope  that  not  a  single  Huguenot  would  be  left  alive 
to  reproach  him  with  the  deed  ;  and  the  next  day  he  went  in 
state  to  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  avowed  himself  the  author 
of  the  massacre,  claiming  to  himself  the  merit  of  having  there- 
by given  peace  to  his  kingdom. 

25.  AVhen  the  news  of  this  horrible  transaction  was  heard  at 
Rome,  solemn  thanks  were  given  for  "  the  triumph  of  the 
church  militant !  "  Charles  died  soon  after  this  massacre,  for 
which  he  is  said  to  have  suffered  the  bitterest  remorse.  Not- 
withstanding the  distractions  of  this  unhappy  reign,  many  wise 
laws  were  enacted  through  the  influence  of  the  celebrated 
chancellor  Be  VHopital. 


FRANCE.  147 

26.  Cliarlcs  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry  III.,  a 
weak,  fickle,  and  vicious  monarch.  Tlie  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew served  rather  to  strengthen  than  weaken  the  Protes- 
tants, who  were  now  a  powerful  party,  and  had  at  their  head 
the  Prince  of  Condc  and  the  King  of  Navarre.  Henry  found 
it  expedient  to  grant  them  some  privileges :  this  measure  in- 
censed the  Catholics,  who,  with  the  Duke  of  Gidse  at  their 
liead,  formed  the  celebrated  League  for  the  purpose  of  extir- 
pating the  Calvinists :  it  had  also  another  and  more  secret  ob- 
ject, tliat  of  usurping  all  the  powers  of  government. 

27.  The  king  was  persuaded  to  unite  himself  with  tliia 
league,  and  took  the  field  against  the  Protestants.  But  he  soon 
found  himself  deprived  of  a  great  part  of  his  authority  by  the 
Duke  of  Guise  ;  and  after  repeated  contests,  Henry  caused  the 
duke,  and  his  brother,  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  to  be  put  to 
death  by  the  hand  of  assassins.  This  act  excited  an  insurrec- 
tion throughout  France,  and  subjected  the  king  to  the  abhor- 
rence of  his  subjects ;  and  he  was  soon  after  assassinated 
himself  by  James  Clement,  a  Dominican  friar. 


SECTION  V. 

House   of   Bourbon  :  —  Henry  IV. ;    Louis  XIII. ;    Louis 
XIV.  —  From  A.  D.  1589  to  1715. 

1.  As  Henry  III.  died  without  children,  and  the  house  of 
Valois  was  extinct,  the  throne  passed  to  the  house  of  Bourlon, 
in  the  person  of  Henry  III.,  King  of  Navarre,  who  now  be- 
came Henry  IV.  of  France,  afterwards  surnamed  the  Great. 
His  mother  had  avowed  herself  the  protector  of  the  Reformed 
religion,  in  which  he  had  been  educated.  He  was  now  in  his 
36th  year ;  an  able  general,  possessed  of  distinguished  talents 
and  popular  qualities,  for  the  exercise  of  all  which  he  soon 
found  ample  occasion,  as  his  being  a  Protestant  prejudiced  the 
greater  part  of  his  people  against  him. 

2.  The  army  of  the  League  was  now  commanded  by  the 
Duke  of  Mayenne.,  brother  of  the  late  Duke  of  Guise,  who  pro- 
claimed his  uncle,  the  Cardinal  of  Bourbon,  king,  by  the  title 
of  Charles  X.  Henry  defeated  this  army  in  the  famous  battle 
of  Jrrv/(1590). 

3.  Meeting  afterwards  with  various  obstacles,  he  was  in- 
duced, by  views  of  policy,  in  order  to  conciliate  the  majority 
of  his  subjects,  to  renovmce  Protestantism,  and  declare  himself 
a  Catholic.    He  was  then  crowned  at  Chartres,  and  obtained 


148  FRANCE. 

absolution  from  the  Pope.  To  his  old  friends,  the  Calvin« 
ists,  who  had  been  his  defenders,  and  by  whose  aid  he  as- 
cended the  throne,  he  granted,  in  1598,  the  celebrated 
Edict  of  Nantes,  by  which  he  confirmed  all  their  rights 
and  privileges,  giving  them  free  admission  to  all  offices  of 
honor  and  profit. 

4.  After  Henry  was  quietly  seated  on  the  throne,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  internal  condition  of 
his  kingdom  ;  encouraging  agriculture  and  commerce,  causing 
mulberry-trees  to  be  planted,  and  silk- worms  to  be  reared ; 
and  in  all  his  patriotic  designs,  he  found  an  able  assistant  in  his 
great  minister,  the  Duke  of  Sully,  in  whom  he  possessed  what 
kings  can  rarely  boast  of,  —  a  true  friend.  The  civil  war,  of 
nearly  thirty  years'  duration,  had  produced  the  most  calami- 
tous effects  :  the  crown  was  loaded  with  debt ;  the  pountry  un- 
cultivated ;  the  people  poor  and  miserable  :  but  by  means  of 
the  wise  and  prudent  measures  which  were  adopted,  the  face 
of  things  was  soon  happily  changed  ;  and,  during  this  reign, 
all  the  state  debts  were  discharged. 

5.  Henry,  with  the  aid  of  Sully,  formed  a  romantic  scheme, 
styled  the  grand  design,  for  dividing  Europe  into  15  states,  so 
arranged  as  to  avoid  the  grounds  of  war,  and  secure  perpetual 
peace.  With  regard  to  his  real  motive,  there  have  been  differ- 
ent opinions ;  but  the  object,  whatever  it  might  be,  was  to  be 
obtained  by  force  of  arms.  Having  made  great  preparations 
for  war,  just  before  he  was  to  set  out  to  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  his  army,  he  was  assassinated,  in  1610,  by  Ravaillac,  a 
bigoted  Catholic,  in  the  21st  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  57th  of 
his  age. 

6.  Henry  was  the  most  popular  sovereign  that  ever  sat  on 
the  throne  of  France.  His  person  and  manners  were  prepos- 
sessing, at  once  inspiring  affection  and  commanding  respect : 
his  talents  were  great,  both  as  a  general  and  a  statesman  ;  but 
his  master  virtue  was  his  love  for  his  people.  His  soldiers 
and  his  subjects  regarded  him  with  the  affection  of  children. 
When  asked  what  the  revenue  of  France  amounted  to,  he  re- 
plied, "  To  what  I  please  ;  for,  having  the  hearts  of  my  peo- 
ple, they  will  give  me  whatever  I  ask.  If  God  sees  proper 
to  spare  my  life,  I  will  take  care  that  France  shall  be  in  such 
a  condition,  that  every  peasant  in  it  shall  be  able  to  have  a 
fowl  in  his  pot." 

7.  Notwithstanding  his  many  noble  qualities  as  a  sovereign 
and  a  man,  yet,  as  a  husband,  he  is  little  to  be  commended ; 
his  dissoluteness  rendered  his  domestic  life  unhappy,  and  the 
manners  of  his  court  were  rendered  profligate  by  the  example 
of  his  libertine  conduct.     No  less  than  4,000  French  gentle- 


FRANCE.  149 

men  arc  said  to  liave  been  killed  in  duels,  chiefly  arising  out 
of  amorous  quarrels,  during  the  first  18  years  of  his  reign. 

8.  Henry  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  XIII.,  then  a  boy 
in  his  9th  year.  Alary  de  Medici,  the  mother  of  the  young 
king,  who  was  appointed  regent,  disgusted  the  nobility  by  her 
partiality  for  Italian  favorites,  and  the  kingdom  soon  relapsed 
into  the  most  fatal  disorders.  But  the  abilities  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu.,  who,  after  the  king  became  of  age,  was  made  Prime 
Minister,  soon  cfTected  a  great  change.  It  was  his  policy  to 
promote  rather  the  aggrandizement  of  the  kingdom,  than  the 
true  interests  and  happiness  of  the  people.  His  three  leading 
objects  were,  to  subdue  the  turbulent  spirit  of  the  French  no- 
bility, to  humble  the  power  of  the  Protestants,  and  to  curb  the 
encroachments  of  the  house  of  Austria. 

9.  The  Protestants,  alienated  by  persecution,  attempted  to 
throw  off  their  allegiance,  and  establish  an  independent  state, 
of  which  Rochelle  was  to  be  the  capital.  Richelieu  laid  siege 
to  this  city,  which,  after  maintaining  a  most  obstinate  resist- 
ance for  a  year,  during  which  15,000  persons  perished,  was 
forced  to  surrender  (1(5128).  By  this  event,  the  civil  war  was- 
ended,  and  the  rrotcslant  power  in  France  finally  crushed. 

10.  The  cardinal  entered  deeply  into  foreign  politics,  influ- 
enced all  the  courts  of  Europe,  and  was  continually  engaged 
in  vast  projects  for  humbling  his  enemies,  and  extending  his 
influence  abroad,  or  in  checking  the  designs  which  were  formed 
against  his  power  and  his  life  at  home.  A  rebellion  was  ex- 
cited by  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  king's  brother,  supported  by 
the  Duke  of  Montmorency ;  but  their  army  was  defeated,  and 
Montmorency  executed  for  treason.  Amidst  all  this  turbu- 
lence and  intrigue,  the  haughty  and  ambitious  cardinal  extend- 
ed the  glory  of  the  French  name  to  distant  regions,  commanded 
the  respect  of  all  the  European  powers,  patronized  literature 
and  science,  and  instituted  the  French  Academij. 

11.  Louis  was  so  completely  under  the  influence  of  Riche- 
lieu, that  his  character  is  little  seen.  He  acquired  the  epithet 
of  Jusl ;  but  if  he  were  entitled  to  it,  the  injustice  and  ci'uelty 
of  some  of  the  pid)lic  measures  of  his  reign  must  be  imputed 
entirely  to  his  minister. 

12.  Louis  XIV.  (sometimes  surnamed  the  Great)  succeeded 
to  the  throne,  in  1643,  in  the  5th  year  of  his  age,  under  the 
regency  of  his  mother,  An7ie  of  Austria,  who  made  choice  of 
Cardinal  Mazarin  for  her  minister.  Mazarin  was  an  artful 
Italian,  whose  excessive  avarice  rendered  him  odious  to  the 
people  ;  but  one  of  his  greatest  faults  was  his  neglect  of  the 
education  of  the  voung  king,  who  was  instructed  only  in  dan- 

13* 


150  •  FRANCE. 

cing,  fencing,  and  other  superficial  accomplishments.  The  ad- 
ministration of  Mazarin  was  signalized  by  tlie  defeat  of  the 
Spaniards,  and  by  mtcsline  commotions,  particularly  a  civil 
war,  called  the  Fronde,  fomented  by  Cardinal  de  Retz,  and 
supported  by  the  aristocracy. 

13.  On  the  death  of  Mazarin,  Louis,  being  now  22  years  of 
age,  took  upon  himself  the  entire  command  and  direction  of 
the  affairs  of  government,  and  entered  on  a  vigorous  and 
splendid  career.  The  love  of  glory  was  his  ruling  passion, 
and  this  he  pursued,  not  only  by  the  terror  of  his  arms  and  the 
splendor  of  his  conquests,  but  also  by  his  patronage  of  litera- 
ture, science,  and  the  arts ;  by  his  able  administration  of  in- 
ternal affairs ;  and  by  the  extension  and  improvement  of  all 
kinds  of  public  works.  The  capital  was  embellished,  the 
splendid  palace  of  Versailles  built,  commerce  and  manufac- 
tures encouraged,  the  canal  of  Languedoc,  and  other  useful 
works,  constructed. 

14.  The  finances  were  admii^ably  regulated  by  Colhert,  one 
of  the  ablest  statesmen  of  modern  times  :  in  the  former  part 
of  his  reign,  his  armies  wei'e  commanded  by  Conde  and  Tii- 
retine,  two  of  the  greatest  generals  of  the  age  ;  and  the  genius 
of  the  famous  Vauban  was  employed  in  fortifying  his  towns. 

15.  For  a  long  time,  he  was  everywhere  successful :  he 
conquered  Franche  Co7npfe,  and  annexed  it  to  France  ;  made 
great  conquests  in  the  Netherlands ;  overran  Alsace ;  and 
twice  laid  waste  the  Palatinate  with  fire  and  sword.  Such 
was  the  barbarous  devastation,  that,  in  the  first  instance,  from 
the  top  of  the  castle  of  Manhcim,  27  cities  and  towns  of  the 
Palatinate  Avere  seen,  at  the  same  time,  in  flames  ;  and  in  the 
second  instance,  more  than  40  towns  and  a  vast  number  of 
villages  were  burnt,  and  the  inhabitants  reduced  to  the  great- 
est extremities  by  hunger  and  cold. 

16.  In  1675,  Turenne  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball ;  Conde 
soon  after  retired  ;  and  Colbert  died.  No  men  of  equal  talents 
arose  to  supply  their  places.  The  conquests  of  Louis  had 
been  made  at  such  an  enormous  expense,  that  his  dominions 
were,  in  a  measure,  exViausted,  and  his  means  of  defence 
weakened.  He  had,  by  his  unbounded  ambition,  by  the  vio- 
leir.ce  and  injustice  of  his  projects,  and  the  alarming  increase 
of  his  power,  gradually  raised  up,  among  the  states  of  Europe, 
a  formidable  opposition  to  his  authority,  which  gave  rise  to 
long  and  bloody  wars. 

17.  By  the  League  of  Augsburg,  which  was  organized  in 
1686,  Holland,  Spain,  Sweden,  and  the  Emperor  and  several  of 
the  princes  of  Germany,  were  united  against  him.  In  1701, 
the  alliance  against  France,  by  England,  Germany,  and  Hoi- 


FRANCE.  151 

land,  was  formed ;  and  a  series  of  reverses  marked  the  latter 
part  of  his  long  reign.  His  armies  had  now  to  contend  against 
the  genius  of  the  Duke  of  Marlhorough  and  Prince  Eugene^  who 
gained  over  them  the  celebrated  battles  of  Blenheim,  Ramillies, 
Oudcnarde,  and  Malplaqaet ;  and  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  he 
lost  nearly  all  that  he  had  gained. 

18.  One  of  the  most  unjust  as  well  as  impolitic  measures  of 
Louis  was  the  revocation  (1685)  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes^ 
granted  by  Henry  IV.,  for  the  toleration  of  the  Protestants. 
By  this  barbarous  act,  all  the  Reformed  churches  were  de- 
stroyed, their  ministers  banished,  and  every  individual  was 
outlawed,  or  compelled  to  renounce  his  religion.  They  were 
hunted  like  wild  beasts,  and  great  numbers  were  put  to  death. 
By  this  measure,  the  kingdom  lost  from  500,000  to  800,000  of 
her  most  useful  and  industrious  citizens,  who  were  driven  into 
exile,  and  carried  the  arts  and  manufactures  of  France,  in 
which  the  Protestants  greatly  excelled,  to  other  countries. 

19.  Louis  died  in  the  73d  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  78th 
of  his  age.  His  reign  was  the  longest  and  most  brilliant  in  the 
history  of  France,  but  not  the  happiest  for  his  country ;  and 
his  government  was  more  despotic  than  that  of  his  predeces- 
sors. "  The  greater  part  of  his  reign,"  says  Anquetil,  "  may 
be  considered  as  a  spectacle  with  grand  machineiy,  calculated 
to  excite  astonishment.  Towards  the  end,  we  behold  nothing 
but  the  wrecks  of  that  theatrical  majesty,  and  the  illusion 
vanishes." 

20.  Louis  was  one  of  the  handsomest  men  in  his  kingdom, 
and  excelled  in  all  the  polite  accomplishments.  In  his  appear- 
ance and  manners  there  was  an  extraordinaiy  degree  of  dig- 
nity and  majesty,  which  were  softened  and  tempered  by 
affability  and  politeness ;  so  that,  if  he  was  not  the  greatest 
king,  he  was  at  least,  as  Bolingbroke  expresses  it,  "  the  best 
actor  of  majesty  that  ever  filled  a  throne." 

21.  He  possessed  gi-eat  vigor  of  mind,  and  good  talents, 
which  were,  however,  but  little  improved  by  education.  His 
morals  were  dissolute,  and  his  ambition  and  love  of  glory  were 
insatiable,  and  led  him  to  violate  the  duties  of  justice  and 
humanity,  and  to  sacrifice  the  real  interests  of  his  people.  He 
patronized  every  species  of  merit,  and  his  reign,  which  is  re- 
garded as  the  Augustan  age  of  French  literature,  was  less  illus- 
trious for  military  achievements,  than  for  the  splendor  of  the 
arts  and  sciences. 


152  FRANCE. 


SECTION  VI. 

Louis  XV. ;  Louis  XVL  :  —  The  Revolution.  —  From  A.  D. 
1715  to  1793. 

1.  Louis  XV.,  great-grandson  of  the  late  king,  succeeded 
to  the  throne,  in  1715,  in  his  6th  year  ;  and  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans was  appointed  regent.  This  regency  is  remarkable 
chiefly  for  the  famous  Mississippi  scheme  of  Laiv,  who  formed 
a  project  to  pay  off  the  national  debt  by  the  introduction  of  a 
])aper  currency  ;  —  a  scheme  which  was  ruinous  to  the  for- 
tunes of  thousands. 

2.  Louis,  soon  after  he  came  of  age,  chose  for  his  minister 
the  mild  and  amiable  Cardinal  Fleury,  who  was  then  73  years 
of  age,  and  retained  his  vigor  till  near  90.  By  his  pacific 
counsels,  the  tranquillity  of  France,  and  even  of  the  rest  of 
Europe,  was  continued,  with  little  interruption,  for  nearly  20 
years. 

3.  After  the  death  of  Fleury,  France  was  involved  in  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  which  was  occasioned  by  the 
death  of  the  emperor,  Charles  VI.  There  were  two  claimants 
to  the  imperial  throne ;  Maria  Thet^esa,  the  late  emperor's 
eldest  daughter,  who  was  married  to  Francis  of  Lorraine, 
(jrrand  Duke  of  Tuscany  ;  and  Charles,  the  Elector  of  Bavaria. 
The  former  was  supported  by  England ;  the  latter  by  France 
and  Prussia.  In  this  war,  the  French  were  defeated  by  the 
allies,  under  George  II.  of  England,  at  Dettingen ;  but,  under 
Marshal  Saxe,  they  gained  the  battle  of  Fontenoy.  Hostilities 
were  terminated,  in  1748,  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  by 
which  the  claim  of  Maria  Theresa  was  acknowledged. 

4.  In  1755,  a  war  broke  out  between  France  and  England 
respecting  their  American  possessions,  which  was  terminated 
by  the  peace  of  Paris,  in  1763,  when  Canada  and  the  other 
French  territories  in  North  America  were  ceded  by  France  to 
Great  Britain.  The  remainder  of  this  reign  was  chiefly  occu- 
pied with  the  conquest  of  Corsica,  and  contests  between  the 
king  and  his  parliaments. 

5.  Louis  died,  after  a  reign  of  59  years,  at  the  age  of  65. 
He  possessed  nothing,  as  a  king  or  a  man,  that  entitled  him  to 
the  gratitude  or  affection  of  his  people.  In  the  early  part  of 
his  reign,  his  subjects  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  Well' 
heloved  ;  but  a  long  course  of  rapacity,  profusion,  and  tyranny, 
as  a  monarch,  and  of  the  most  profligate  debaucheries  in  pri- 
vate life,  induced  them  to  retract  the  appellation.     His  reign 


FRANCE.  153 

resembled  that  of  Charles  II.  of  EngLand,  in  its  pernicious  in- 
fluence on  the  interests  of  religion,  morality,  and  liberty.  His 
own  odious  character ;  his  attempts  to  crush  the  spirit  of  free- 
dom ;  the  prodigality  of  his  government ;  the  extreme  profligacy 
of  his  court,  —  all  conspired  to  loosen  the  bonds  between  the 
sovereign  and  his  subjects,  and  prepare  for  the  overthrow  of 
all  the  ancient  institutions  of  the  kingdom ;  and  the  general 
uneasiness  and  the  murmurs  of  the  people  indicated  ap- 
proaching storms. 

6.  Louis  XVI.  succeeded  his  grandfather,  in  1774,  at  the 
age  of  20  years.  He  was  a  man  of  correct  morals,  upright 
intentions,  desirous  of  correcting  abuses,  but  was  wanting  in 
decision  of  character.  His  post  was  one  beset  with  great  diffi- 
culty and  danger  from  various  quarters.  It  was  difficult  either 
to  do  good  or  to  continue  evil,  as  the  privileged  classes  were 
as  little  disposed  to  submit  to  reforms  as  the  people  to  abuses. 
The  finances,  by  reason  of  the  long  course  of  prodigality,  were 
in  the  most  embarrassed  condition ;  and  the  people,  irritated 
by  the  tyrannical  conduct  of  the  late  sovereign,  were  now 
more  than  ever  alive  to  their  rights. 

7.  One  of  the  first  measures  of  the  new  king  was,  to  remove 
from  office  those  who,  by  their  misconduct,  had  become  un- 
popular, and  had  contributed  to  the  distresses  of  the  kingdom, 
and  to  replace  them  by  men  of  talents  and  integrity.  Turgot 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  finances,  and  Malesherbes  was 
made  Minister  of  the  Interior.  These  enlightened  statesmen 
attempted  useful  reforms,  which  offended  the  courtiers  and 
privileged  orders ;  and,  after  a  short  ministry,  they  retired 
from  office. 

8.  The  celebrated  Necker,  a  Protestant  of  Geneva,  and  a 
banker,  succeeded  Turgot,  and  pursued  the  system  of  economy 
and  reform ;  but,  becoming  unpopular  with  the  courtiers,  he 
was  displaced.  The  important  office  of  the  general  control  of 
the  finances  had  now  become  exceedingly  difficult  to  fill.  Two 
financiers  having  attempted,  without  success,  to  supply  the  place 
of  Necker,  the  office  was  given,  in  1783,  to  Cakmne,  who 
abandoned  reforms,  and  made  a  boast  of  prodigality. 

9.  War  between  Great  Britain  and  the  American  Colonies 
having  broken  out,  many  Frenchmen,  among  whom  were  the 
Marquis  de  LafuyeUe,  and  other  officers  and  engineers,  cross- 
ed the  Atlantic  to  aid  the  Americans ;  and  France  soon  after 
declared  war  against  England.  On  the  return  of  peace,  in 
1783,  the  difficulties  increased  ;  the  enormous  public  expenses 
had  brougi\t  the  finances  into  the  most  embarrassed  condition, 
und  the  government  was  reduced  to  a  stand  for  want  of  supplies. 

10.  Various  causes  had  been,  for  some  time,  at  work  to  pro- 


154  FRANCE. 

duce  a  revolution  in  France,  which  was  now  about  to  burst 
forth,  and  convulse  not  only  that  country,  but  the  whole  civil- 
ized world.  Some  of  the  principal  of  these  causes  were,  the 
pi'ogress  of  philosophy,  the  diti'usion  of  information,  and  the 
freedom  of  thinking  on  subjects  of  government  and  religion ; 
the  notions  and  feelings  in  favor  of  liberty  excited  by  the 
American  revolution,  and  disseminated  by  the  return  of  the 
French  officers  and  army  from  the  United  States ;  the  preva- 
lence of  infidelity  among  the  literary  classes  ;  the  despotism 
of  the  government,  and  the  abuses  both  of  the  ecclesiastical 
and  political  establishments ;  the  odious  privileges  of  the  no- 
bility and  clergy,  especially  their  exemption  from  taxes ;  the 
desire  of  the  nobility  to  regain  those  privileges  of  which  they 
had  been  stripped  by  the  crown  ;  and  the  discontent  of  the 
mass  of  the  people  on  account  of  their  oppressed  condition, 
being  the  despised  portion  of  the  state,  yet  bearing  all  its  bur- 
dens. All  these  circumstances  had  an  influence  in  preparing 
the  way  for  this  great  event ;  yet  the  more  immediate  cause 
of  the  revolution  was  the  derangement  of  the  finances. 

11.  All  plans  for  restoring  the  finances  to  order  having 
proved  ineffectual,  Louis,  by  the  advice  of  Calonue,  convoked, 
in  1787,  an  assembly  of  the  Notables,  a  body  consisting  of 
persons  selected  by  the  king,  chiefly  from  the  higher  orders 
of  the  state.  To  this  assembly  it  was  proposed  to  levy  a  land- 
tax,  proportioned  to  property,  without  any  exception  in  favor 
of  the  nobility  or  clergy ;  but  being  little  inclined  to  make 
sacrifices,  they  refused  to  sanction  the  measure. 

12.  Calonne,  finding  it  impossible  any  longer  to  maintain  his 
ground,  resigned  his  office,  and  was  succeeded  by  Brienne^ 
Archbishop  of  Toulouse.  But  the  assembly  of  Notables  still 
continuing  unmanageable  and  parsimonious,  recourse  was  then 
had  to  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  but  without  success,  and  a  con- 
vocation of  the  States- General  was  demanded.  This  body, 
which  was  composed  of  three  orders,  nobility,  clergy,  and  the 
third  estate,  or  commons,  had  not  been  assembled  since  1614  ; 
and  it  never  had  a  regular  existence. 

13.  Necker  was  again  recalled  to  power ;  and  a  second  as- 
sembly of  the  Notables  was  convoked,  in  order  to  determine 
the  form  and  composition  of  the  States-General.  Necker  pro- 
posed that  the  deputies  of  the  commons  should  equal,  in  num- 
ber, those  of  the  other  two  orders  united  ;  but  the  Notables  re- 
fused to  concur  in  the  measure.  It  was,  however,  sanctioned 
by  the  king,  and  carried  into  effect.  The  commonsiishose  able 
men  ;  and  on  the  5th  of  May,  1789,  the  assembly  of  the  States- 
General  was  opened  at  Versailles.  This  body  carried  forward 
a  revolution,  which  was  now  effectually  commenced. 


FRAKCE.  155 

14.  The  king  addressed  the  States-General  in  a  conciliatory 
speech,  no  longer  using  the  language  of  a  sovereign  who  ex- 
pected implicit  obedience  to  his  will.  But  difficulties  soon 
arose  respecting  the  manner  in  which  questions  should  he 
decided,  whether  by  a  majority  of  orders  or  of  polls,  and 
whether  there  should  be  a  separation  or  union  of  the  three 
branches. 

15.  At  length  the  deputies  of  the  third  estate,  or  commons, 
with  such  deputies  of  the  nobility  and  clergy  as  were  dis- 
])0sed  to  unite  with  them,  on  the  motion  of  the  AhM  Siey^s^ 
declared  themselves  the  supreme  legislative  Ijody,  under  the 
title  of  the  National  Assembly,  a  body  "  one  and  indivisible." 
Of  this  assembly  Bailly  was  chosen  the  president,  and  Mira- 
beau,  a  man  of  brilliant  talents  and  great  eloquence,  was  the 
popular  leader.  The  Diikc  of  Orleans,  a  descendant  of  Louis 
XIII.,  and  the  father  of  Louis  Philippe,  ex-king  of  the  French, 
noted  for  his  immense  wealth  and  profligacy,  was  also  a  promi- 
nent member. 

16.  The  first  decree  of  the  National  Assembly  was  an  act 
of  sovereignty ;  and  by  proclaiming  the  indivisibility  of  the 
legislative  power,  it  placed  under  its  dependence  the  privileged 
orders.  Thus  Louis  found  that  his  authority  was,  in  a  great 
measure,  wrested  from  him  ;  and  the  great  body  of  the  nobility 
and  clergy,  by  their  refusal  to  unite  with  the  commons,  like- 
wise saw.  themselves  shut  out  from  power,  and  their  privileges 
invaded. 

17.  During  the  irritated  state  of  the  public  mind,  the  king 
again  dismissed  Necker  from  office.  This  unpopular  measure 
was  the  signal  for  insurrection  in  Paris,  which  was  soon  in  a 
state  of  violent  commotion.  The  Bastile,  a  huge  state  prison, 
was  demolished  by  the  populace ;  other  excesses  were  com- 
mitted in  the  city  and  elsewhere,  by  the  furious  rabble,  and  by 
mobs  of  frantic  women  of  the  vilest  character.  The  army 
united  with  the  people  ;  the  nobles  emigrated  for  safety,  and 
for  foreign  aid ;  the  king,  queen,  and  royal  family,  were 
forced,  on  the  6th  of  October,  from  Versailles  to  the  capital 
by  the  ungovernable  mob  ;  but  were  protected  from  violence 
by  the  influence  and  efforts  of  Lafayette,  who  commanded  tlio 
National  Guard.  In  consequence  of  this  removal,  the  Assembly 
adjourned  its  sittings  to  Paris. 

18.  The  progi'ess  of  the  revolution  was  rapid,  aad  produced 
the  most  important  consequences.  The  seat  of  power  was 
changed^  and  all  the  preliminary  alterations  were  effected. 
The  three  orders  were  discontinued ;  the  States-General  con- 
verted into  the  Assembly  of  the  nation ;  the  royal  authority 
nearly  annihilated  ;   the  privileges  of  the  nobles  and  clergy 


156  FRANCE. 

and  the  feudal  system,  in  all  its  branches,  abolished  ;  religious 
liberty  and  the  freedom  of  the  press  established ;  the  church 
lands  confiscated ;  the  monasteries  suppressed  ;  and  France 
was  divided  into  83  departments. 

19.  After  these  measures  were  accomplished,  the  great  de- 
sign of  the  National  Assembly  was  the  formation  of  a  consti- 
tution^ and  from  this  circumstance  it  is  denominated  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly.  While  engaged  in  its  deliberations,  Louis 
and  his  family,  finding  their  situation  uncomfortable,  escaped 
from  Paris,  but  were  stopped  on  the  frontiers  of  the  kingdom, 
and  brought  back.  A  constitution,  which  established  limited 
monarchy,  and  the  equality  of  all  ranks,  was  at  length  com- 
pleted, and  accepted  by  the  king,  and  the  assembly  dissolved 
itself  on  the  30th  of  September,  1791. 

20.  The  next  assembly,  styled  the  Legislative  Assembly., 
met  on  the  first  of  October,  and  was  composed  wholly  of  new 
members,  as  the  members  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  were, 
by  their  own  act,  excluded  from  holding  seats  in  it.  Soon 
after  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  various  political 
clubs  were  formed  in  Paris,  of  which  the  Jacobin  club  (so 
called  from  its  meeting  in  a  convent  of  suppressed  Jacobin 
monks)  was  the  most  prominent,  and  insensibly  absorbed  all 
the  rest;  and,  for  a  time,  this  factious  association  governed  the 
capital,  and  controlled  the  Assembly. 

^  21.  On  the  21st  of  September,  1792,  a  new  body,  styled 
the  National  Convention.,  commenced  their  deliberations ;  and, 
at  their  first  sitting,  they  abolished  the  regal  government,  and 
declared  France  a  repuhlic.  The  king  was  arraigned  at  their 
bar  to  answer  to  various  charges ;  he  appeared  before  them 
with  a  firm  and  manly  countenance,  and  looked  round  upon 
the  assembly  with  an  air  of  resolution. 

22.  Deseze,  one  of  the  defenders  of  the  king,  ended  his 
speech  with  these  words  :  "  Listen  to  History,  who  will  say  to 
Fame,  —  Louis,  who  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
carried  with  him  there  an  example  of  morals,  of  justice,  and 
of  economy :  he  had  no  weaknesses,  no  corrupting  passions, 
and  he  was  the  constant  friend  of  his  people.  The  people  de- 
sired that  a  disastrous  impost  should  be  abolished,  and  Louis 
abolished  it ;  the  people  asked  for  the  destruction  of  servitudes, 
and  Louis  destroyed  them ;  they  demanded  reforms,  he  con- 
sented to  them  ;  they  wished  to  change  the  laws  by  which  they 
were  governed,  he  agreed  to  their  wish ;  the  people  required 
that  several  millions  of  Frenchmen  should  recover  their,  rights, 
and  these  he  restored  to  them ;  the  people  asked  for  liberty, 
and  he  gave  it.  No  one  can  dispute  that  Louis  had  the  glory 
of  anticipating  the  demands  of  his  people  by  making  these 


FRANCE.  is;! 

sacrifices  ;  and  it  is  he  whom  it  has  been  proposed  to....  Citi- 
zens, I  cannot  go  on ;  I  pause  in  the  presence  of  History :  re- 
member that  History  will  judge  your  judgment,  and  that  her 
decision  will  be  that  of  ages  to  coino." 

23.  But  the  passions  of  the  Convention  were  deaf  and  un- 
moved ;  and  the  sentence  of  death  was  pronotmced  by  a 
majority  of  26  out  of  721  voters.  The  king  was  carried  o 
the  place  of  execution,  and  mounted  the  ladder  of  the  scafibld 
with  a  firm  step.  "  I  die  innocent,"  said  he  ;  "  I  forgive  my 
enemies ;  and  you,  unfortunate  people...."  At  this  moment, 
the  noise  of  the  drums  drowned  his  voice ;  the  executioners 
seized  him ;  and  the  axe  of  the  guillotine  separated  his  head 
from  his  body,  on  the  21st  of  January,  1793.  Thus  perished, 
at  the  age  of  thirty-nine,  and  after  a  most  disastrous  reign  of 
eighteen  years  and  a  half,  this  well-disposed,  but  most  unfortu- 
nate monarch. 


SECTION  VII. 

The  Revolution  continued  :' —  Robespierre  ;  Bonaparte ;  Euro- 
pean War :  Bonaparte  dethroned,  and  the  Bourbon  Family 
restored.  —  From  A.  D.  1793  to  1815. 

1.  In  1793,  the  constitution  of  the  republic  was  completed 
by  the  Convention  ;  the  executive  power  was  lodged  in  a  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety ;  and  the  revolutionary  tribunal  was 
erected  under  Robespierre  and  his  associates,  whose  bloody 
domination  is  styled  "  the  reign  of  terror.''''  Two  factions 
soon  arose  in  the  National  Convention,  one  styled  the  Mountain 
party,  from  their  occupying  the  most  elevated  seats  in  the  hall 
of  the  Convention,  —  these  were  the  most  violent  revolution- 
ists and  advocates  for  the  extreme  of  democracy ;  the  other 
named  Girondists,  because  some  of  their  leaders  were  from 
the  department  of  the  Gironde,  —  these  were  more  moderate, 
and  more  distinguished  for  love  of  order  and  equity.  The 
leaders  of  the  former  were  Robespierre,  Danton,  and  Marat, 
men  almost  unparalleled  in  depravity  and  cruelty  :  of  the  lat- 
ter, the  leaders  were  Brissot,  Vergniaud,  and  Condorcct. 

2.  The  Mountain  party,  having  gained  the  ascendency  over 
their  opponents,  were  instrumental  in  causing  the  most  horrid 
massacres.  They  condemned  and  executed  the  Queen  An- 
toinette, and  guillotined  Brissot,  Vergniaud,  and  20  others  of 
the  Girondists.  That  monster  of  vice,  the  Duke  of  Oi'leans, 
suffered  the  same  fate  from   the  hands  of  the  very  parly  that 

14 


1^  FRAKCE. 

he  had  materially  contributed  to  bring  forward  to  serve  his  own 
purposes. 

'S.  The  Convention  abandoned  themselves  to  the  most  ex- 
travagant excesses :  on  the  motion  of  Gobet,  Archbishop  of 
Paris,  they  suppressed  the  Clmstian  religion ;  passed  a  de- 
cree that  the  only  French  deities  hereafter  should  be  Liberty, 
Equality^  and  Reason ;  established  a  republican  calendar ; 
abolished  the  Sahbalh^  and,  instead  of  it,  made  every  10th  day 
a  day  of  rest.  The  churclics  were  jjlundered  of  their  gold 
and  silver;  and  even  their  bells  were  melted  and  cast  into 
cannon. 

4.  The  Convention  was  at  length  divided  anew  into  two 
most  violent  parties ;  Robespier're  at  the  head  of  one,  and 
Danlon  of  the  other.  Robespierre  triumphed,  and  all  his  most 
active  opponents  were  guillotined  ;  but  his  own  fate  soon  fol- 
lowed, being  condemned  and  executed  on  a  charge  of  tyranny, 
in  July,  1794.  The  Jacobins  were  soon  after  suppressed  by 
the  Convention;  and,  during  the  next  year  (1795),  the  third 
constitution  was  proclaimed,  the  executive  power  being  vested 
in  Jive  directors.  —  From  1791  to  1799,  four  different  consti- 
tutions were  formed.  By  the  4th,  adopted  in  1799,  the  execu- 
tive power  was  vested  in  three  consuls.,  of  whom  Bonaparte 
was  elected  to  be  first,  Cambaceres  the  second,  and  Le  Brim 
the  third ;  and,  in  1802,  these  three  were  appointed  consuls 
for  life. 

5.  The  French  revolution  was  at  first  political,  as  directed 
against  the  absolute  power  of  the  court  and  the  privileges  of 
the  higher  classes ;  but  it  afterwards  became  military,  because 
Europe  attacked  it.  The  European  sovereigns,  fearful  of  its 
consequences  in  their  respective  dominions,  attempted  to  put 
it  down ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  extended  its  sphere.  It 
was  destined  in  its  progress  to  work  a  change  in  the  politics  of 
Europe,  by  terminating  the  struggle  of  the  kings  with  each 
other,  and  beginning  one  between  the  kings  and  the.  people ; 
and  in  its  final  result,  it  diminished  the  power  of  the  sovereigns 
and  the  privileges  of  the  nobility  and  clergy,  and  promoted  the 
liberty  of  the  people  and  the  advancement  of  civilization. 

6.  Before  the  execution  of  the  king,  many  of  the  clergy  and 
nobility,  together  with  multitudes  of  persons,  attached  to  the 
ancient  order  of  things,  had  fled  from  France,  through  fear  of 
personal  danger,  and  to  solicit  foreign  aid.  A  powerful  body 
was  thus  collected  on  the  frontiers,  who  were  assisted  by  the 
surrounding  nations,  especially  the  Prussians  and  Austrians, 
in  their  efforts  to  reestablish  royalty  and  tranquillity.  This 
was  the  origin  ( 1792)  of  the  First  of  that  series  of  Coalitions 
against  France,  into  which  nearly  all  the  powers  of  Europe 


FRANCE.  159 

successively  entered.  On  the  death  of  the  king,  Great  Britain 
and  Holland,  and  soon  afterwards  Russia  and  Spain  also,  de- 
clared war  against  France. 

7.  The  invading  army  was  commanded  by  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick^  who  injudiciously  published  a  threatening  mani- 
festo, the  effect  of  which  was  to  irritate  the  revolutionists  into 
greater  violences,  to'haslen  the  execution  of  tlie  king,  and  to 
unite  all  parties  in  the  defence  of  the  country. 

8.  The  combined  invasion  under  the  Duke  of  Brunswick 
was  completely  overthrown.  France  in  lier  turn  became  the 
assailant,  and  her  army  under  Dumouriez  conquered  the 
Netherlands  in  the  autumn  of  1792  ;  and  afterwards  Holland, 
Switzerland,  and  a  part  of  Germany,  yielded  to  her  arms. 
The  republic,  having  made  peace  with  several  of  the  German 
])rinces,  turned  lier  views  towards  Italy ;  and  the  command  of 
the  army  was  (1796)  given  to  Napohon  Bonaparte,  then  a 
young  man  in  the  27tli  year  of  his  age,  who  had  previously 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Toulon.  By  a  series  of 
rapid  victories,  this  extraordinary  man  retrieved  the  affairs  of 
France,  and  obliged  the  Austrians  to  sign,  in  1797,  the  treaty 
of  Campo  Formio,  by  which  the  conquests  of  the  French  in 
the  Netherlands  were  confirmed,  and  the  Milanese  ceded  to 
the  new  Cisalpine  Republic  ;  whilst  the  Venetian  'territories 
were  given  up  to  Austria. 

9.  The  Second  Coalition  was  formed  after  the  defeat  of  the 
French  fleet,  in  1798,  by  that  of  the  English,  under  Nelson,  in 
the  bay  of  Ahoukir,  off  the  mouth  of  the  Nile.  Before  this 
event,  Bonaparte  had  invaded  Egypt,  defeated  the  Mamelukes 
in  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids,  and  taken  possession  of  Cairo 
and  all  the  Delta. 

10.  In  the  campaign  of  1799,  the  French  were  very  unfor- 
tunate ;  the  Austrians,  under  the  Archduke  Charles,  and  the 
Russians,  under  Suwarroio,  gained  a  number  of  important  vic- 
tories in  the  north  of  Italy,  in  Switzerland,  and  in  Germany  : 
by  their  united  forces,  the  very  frontiers  of  France  were 
threatened;  whist  the  ill  conduct  of  the  Directory  at  home 
brought  the  c  juntry  to  the  brink  of  ruin.  At  this  crisis,  Bona- 
parte, who  had  proceeded  from  Egypt  to  Syria,  and  taken 
Jaffa,  returned  to  Paris,  and,  by  the  aid  of  Fouche,  Camhaceres., 
Talleyrand,  Lucien  Bonaparte,  and  Sieyes,  together  with  a 
military  force,  he  abolished  the  Directory,  framed  a  new  con- 
stitution, and  caused  himself  to  be  elected,  in  1799,  First  Consul. 

11.  From  this  moment,  the  affairs  of  the  republic  took  a 
new  turn.  By  his  activity  and  energy,  Bonaparte  overcame 
the  intrigues  of  all  his  rivals,  introduced  a  new  order  of  things 
in  the  different  departments  of  slate,  suppressed  the  various 


160  FRANCE. 

factions  that  had  long  raged  in  the  empire,  and,  by  the  ref- 
ormation of  many  abuses,  restored  order  and  tranquillity  to  the 
government. 

12.  After  this,  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  army,  and, 
having  effected  the  celebrated  passage  of  the  Alps,  defeated 
(1800)  the  Austrians  under  McJas,  in  the  memorable  battle  of 
Marengo,  wnich  decided  the  fate  of  Italy.  This  victory,  to- 
gether with  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians,  soon  afterwards,  at 
Ilohenlinden,  by  the  French  under  Moreau,  and  other  suc- 
cesses, led  the  way  to  the  peace  of  Luneville  with  Austria  and 
the  German  empire  (1801),  and  afterwards  to  the  peace  of 
Aviiens  with  England  (1802).  Thus  Europe,  for  the  first  time 
since  the  late  revolution,  enjoyed  the  blessings  of  universal  peace. 

13.  The  limits  of  France  were  now  greatly  enlarged,  and 
Bonaparte,  as  First  Consul,  exercised  an  absolute  sway  over 
almost  all  the  continent  of  Europe  west  of  the  Adriatic  and 
the  Rhine.  Soon  after  the  establishment  of  peace,  he  restored 
the  Catholic  religion,  concluded  a  concordat  or  convention  with 
the  Pope,  granted  toleration  to  all  religions,  and  instituted  the 
Legion  of  Honor. 

14.  He  was  next  elected  First  Consul  for  life,  with  supreme 
power ;  but  a  conspiracy  was  now  formed  against  him,  in 
which  Moreau,  Pichegru,  Georges,  and  other  eminent  men, 
were  accused  of  participating.  Moreau  was  banished  to 
America ;  Pichegru  was  strangled ;  Georges,  and  1 1  others, 
were  guillotined ;  and  the  Duke  d''Enghien  was  shot  without 
trial.  —  In  1804,  Bonaparte  was  proclaimed  Ejnperor  of  France, 
and  was  crowned  by  the  Pope  :  the  next  year,  he  assumed  also 
the  title  of  King  of  Itah/. 

15.  The  peace  of  Amiens  was  of  short  duration.  In  1803, 
the  war  was  renewed  between  France  and  England ;  Bona- 
parte seized  Hanover,  and  threatened  to  invade  the  British 
isles;  and  in  1805,  the  Third  Coalition  was  formed  by  Eng- 
land, Austria,  Russia,  Sweden,  and  afterwards  Prussia.  The 
emperor  immediately  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  French 
army ;  carried  his  rapid  and  victorious  arms  to  Ulm,  where  he 
captured  the  Austrian  army  of  33,000  men  under  Mack ;  and, 
in  the  memorable  battle  of  Austerlitz  (1805),  defeated  the 
united  forces  of  Russia  and  Austria,  —  at  which  battle  the  three 
emperors  were  present.  This  great  victory  terminated  the 
campaign,  and  brought  about  the  peace  of  Preshurg,  by  which 
Austria  ceded  to  the  French  the  Venetian  territories,  and  sub- 
mitted to  other  humiliating  conditions. 

16.  A  few  weeks  before  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  the  English 
fleet,  under  Lord  Nelson,  gained  a  great  victory  off  Cape  Tra- 
falgar,  over  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain.     The 


FRANCE.  161 

English  captured  19  sliips  of  the  line,  but  lost  their  great  ad- 
miral, who  was  slain  in  the  action. 

17.  The  King  of  Naples  having  permitted  a  British  and  Rus- 
sian army  to  land  in  his  dominions,  the  Emperor  of  France 
deposed  the  Neapolitan  dynasty,  and  raised  his  brother  Joseph^ 
to  the  throne  ;  he  also  compelled  the  Dutch  to  receive  his 
brother,  Louis,  as  King  of  Holland.  He  next  subverted  the 
constitution  of  the  Germaji  empire,  and  formed  a  union  of 
several  states,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Confederation  of  the 
Khine^''  of  which  he  was  chosen  protector.  Francis  II.  sol- 
emnly resigned  (180G)  his  title  as  "  Emperor  of  Germany  and 
King  of  the  Romans,"  and  retained  the  title  which  he  had  as- 
sumed in  1804,  namely,  that  of  hereditary  Emperor  of  Aus- 
tria. The  electors  of  Bavaria.,  Wurt.eniherg,  and  Saxony 
joined  the  Confederation,  and  were  raised,  by  Bonaparte,  to 
the  rank  of  kings, 

18.  The  vast  accession  of  power  acquired  by  this  alliance 
was  the  cause  of  new  jealousies,  and  hastened  the  Fourth 
Coalition.,  formed  in  1806,  by  which  Prussia,  Russia,  Austria, 
Sweden,  and  England  were  united  in  the  war  against  France. 
Hostilities  wei'e  commenced  by  the  Prussians,  without  waiting 
for  the  aid  of  Russia  ;  but  Bonaparte,  with  his  usual  good  for- 
tune, gained  over  them  the  great  battles  of  Jena  and  Auer- 
stadt,  entered  the  capital  of  Prussia  as  a  conqueror,  and  here 
connncnced  the  "  Continental  System''''  against  English  com- 
merce, by  issuing  the  Berlin  Decree,  declaring  the  British 
islands  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  ordering  all  ports  to  be  shut 
against  them.  The  French  army  penetrated  into  Poland,  and 
gained  an  advantage  over  the  Russians,  in  the  hard-fought  bat- 
tle of  PuJtusk  (1806). 

19.  The  following  year  (1807),  Bonaparte  fought  with  the 
Russians  the  indecisive  battle  of  Eylau ;  defeated  them  at 
Fried/arid ;  and,  having  gained  possession  of  Dantzic  and 
Konigsberg,  concluded  the  peace  of  Tilsit.  Separate  treaties 
were  made  with  Russia  and  Prussia  :  the  former  gained  a  small 
acquisition  of  territory ;  but  the  dominions  of  the  latter  were 
reduded  almost  one  half ;  both  agreed  to  shut  their  ports  against 
England,  and  thus  became  parties  in  the  French  emperor's 
favorite  object  of  excluding  British  commerce  from  the  conti- 
nent. The  provinces  conquered  from  Prussia  were  erected 
into  the  new  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  of  which  Jei^ome  Bona- 
parte was  acknowledged  king. 

20.  The  English  governmenr,  in  retaliation  of  Bonaparte's 
Berlin  Decree,  issued  their  Orders  in  Colmcil,  by  which  all 
neutral  vessels  trading  with  France  were  compelled  to  stop  at 
a  British  [)ort  and  pay  a  dutv.     After  llie  peace  of  Tilsit,  the 

14* 


162  FRANCE. 

emperor  proceeded  to  Italy ;  and  at  Milan,  in  consequence  of 
the  Orders  in  Council,  ho  issued  (1807)  his  Milan  Decree,  by 
which  every  vessel  which  submitted  to  British  search,  or  con- 
sented to  any  pecuniary  exactions  whatever,  was  confiscated. 

21.  Elated  by  his  astonishing  successes,  the  Emperor  of 
France  appeared  now  ( 1808)  to  consider  himself  as  sovereign 
of  Europe,  and  to  set  at  defiance  all  principles  of  justice  and 
moderation.  Being  ambitious  of  appropriating  more  of  the 
thrones  of  Europe  to  his  brothers  and  relatives,  he  next  fixed 
his  attention  on  Spai7i  and  Portugal ;  and  so  decisive  was  he 
in  the  execution  of  his  plans,  that,  in  a  short  time,  the  royal 
family  of  Portugal  emigrated  to  Brazil. 

22.  Though  Charles  IV.,  King  of  Spain,  had  shown  himself 
subservient  to  the  views  of  the  French  emperor,  yet  the  latter 
was  not  content,  but  compelled  the  Spanish  monarch  to  resign 
his  crown  in  favor  of  his  brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  whom  he 
removed  from  Naples,  and  caused  to  be  proclaimed  King  of 
Spain ;  and  he  raised  to  the  throne  of  Naples  Murat,  who  had 
married  his  sister. 

23.  The  Spaniards  rose  in  opposition  to  this  tyrannical 
measure,  and,  in  this  emergency,  had  recourse  to  England, 
who  readily  afforded  her  assistance.  The  war  which  was  thus 
excited  in  the  peninsula  continued  to  rage  from  1808  to  1813 ; 
and,  in  a  series  of  engagements,  the  forces  of  England  and 
Spain,  under  the  command  of  Wellington  and  others,  were,  in 
most  instances,  victorious  over  the  armies  of  France.  Some 
of  the  principal  exploits  in  this  war  were  the  desperate,  but  in- 
effectual, defence  of  Saragossa,  by  Palafox,  and  the  victories 
of  Wellington  at  Talavera,  Salamanca,  and  Vittoria. 

24.  In  1809,  while  the  war  was  raging  in  Spain,  hostilities 
again  broke  out  between  France  and  Austria,  which  were  pros- 
ecuted by  Bonaparte  with  his  usual  success.  Having  gained 
advantages  over  the  Austrians  at  Abensberg,  Eckmuhl,  and 
Ratisbon,  he  entered  Vienna ;  afterwards  fought,  against  the 
Archduke  Charles,  the  indecisive  battle  of  Aspern  or  Essling, 
and  entirely  defeated  him  at  Wagram. 

25.  This  war  was  terminated  (1809)  by  the  treaty  of  ^Henna 
or  Schoenbrunn,  by  which  Francis  II.,  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
was  compelled  to  submit  to  considerable  losses  of  territory,  to 
accede  to  the  "  continental  system,"  and,  what  was  more  hu' 
miliating,  to  promise  his  daughter,  Maria  Louisa,  in  marriage 
to  his  great  and  victorious  enemy.  In  consequence  of  this 
treaty,  Bonaparte  was  divorced  from  his  empress  Josephine, 
and  his  marriage  with  the  emperor's  daughter  was  solemnized 
April  1,  1810;  and  he  thus  became  allied  to  the  imperial 
house  of  Austria. 


FRANCE.  163 

26.  By  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  Alexander,  the  Emperor  of  Rus- 
sia, had  acceded  to  Bonaparte's  "  continental  system  "  against 
England,  by  agreeing  to  exclude  British  goods  from  his  do- 
minions ;  but  the  consequences  of  this  measure  were  extreme- 
ly injurious  to  his  subjects,  and  ruinous  to  his  finances.  The 
year  (1811)  was  spent  in  negotiations  and  discussions;  but  as 
they  did  not  promise  an  amicable  adjustment,  both  parties  pre- 
pared for  war.  Early  in  the  spring  of  1812,  Bonaparte  col- 
lected, in  Poland,  an  immense  army,  consisting  of  400,000 
infantry,  60,000  cavalry,  and  1,200  pieces  of  artillery ;  and 
on  the  24th  of  June,  crossing  the  Niemcn,  he  invaded  the  Rus- 
sian territories. 

27.  His  march  was  directed  towards  Moscoio,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  empire,  and  was  everywhere  marked  with  deso- 
lation and  blood.  He  defeated  the  Russians  at  Smolensk  • 
fought  the  tremendous  battle  of  Borodino,  or  Mos/cwa,  in 
which  nearly  30,000  men  fell  on  each  side ;  proceeded  after- 
wards to  Moscow,  which  he  found  enveloped  in  flames,  and 
abandoned  by  the  inhabitants.  The  city  had  been  set  on  fire 
by  the  Russians,  in  order  to  prevent  the  French  from  deriving 
any  advantage  from  possessing  it ;  and  nearly  three-fourths  of 
it  were  consumed  before  the  conflagration  ceased. 

28.  This  extraordinary  transaction  was  the  cause  of  the 
greatest  mortification  and  disappointment  to  Bonaparte.  He 
had  imagined  that,  after  obtaining  possession  of  Moscow,  he 
should  become  the  arbiter  of  the  whole  Russian  empire,  and 
be  able  to  prescribe  to  it  such  a  peace  as  he  should  think 
proper.  But  his  good  fortune  had  now  forsaken  him ;  and 
finding  himself  thwarted  in  this  object,  the  Russian  generals 
concentrating  their  forces  around  him,  and  the  horrors  of  a 
Russian  winter  approaching,  he  thought  it  most  prudent  to 
evacuate  the  city,  and  retreat  towards  the  frontiers. 

29.  Then  followed,  amidst  the  solitudes  and  snows  of  Rus- 
sia, in  consequence  of  cold  and  famine,  a  series  of  disasters, 
losses,  and  suflerings,  which  are  scarcely  paralleled  in  history, 
and  which  issued  in  the  almost  entire  destruction  of  the  invad- 
ing army.  About  30,000  horses  perished  by  the  severity  of 
the  weather  in  a  single  day ;  all  the  pieces  of  cannon  were 
lost ,  and  only  about  30,000  men  remained  to  rccross  the 
Niemen. 

30.  After  the  remnant  of  the  French  army  had  eflfected  the 
disastrous  passage  of  the  Berezina,  near  the  frontiers  of  Rus- 
sia, the  emperor  quitted  it,  and  fled,  in  disguise,  through  Po- 
land and  Germany,  to  Paris.  He  resolved  to  hazard  another 
campaign,  and  raised  ( 1813)  a  fresh  army  of  350,000  men ; 
but  he  was  now  opposed  by  the  Fifth  Coalition,  consisting  of 


164  FRANCE. 

Russia,  Prussia,  Austria,  some   of   the   confederates   of   the 
Rhine,  and  Sweden,  subsidized  by  England. 

31.  Bonaparte  again  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army: 
was  worsted  by  the  Allies  in  the  battle  of  Lutzcn  ;  defeated 
them  in  the  battle  of  Bautzen  ;  repulsed  them  at  Dresden^ 
where  Moreau  was  slain ;  but  was  utterly  routed  in  the  tre- 
mendous battle  of  Leipsic  (Oct.  1813),  with  the  loss  of  40,000 
men  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  The  combatants,  in 
this  action,  called  the  "  Battle  of  Nations,"  exceeded  400,000  ; 
a  greater  number  than  has  been  engaged  in  any  other  battle  in 
modern  times. 

32.  Bonaparte  made  his  escape  from  the  scene  of  his  de- 
feat, and  proceeded  to  Paris.  In  his  address  to  the  senate,  he 
frankly  acknowledged  his  disasters.  "All  Europe,"  said  he, 
"  was  with  us  a  year  ago,  —  all  Europe  is  now  against  us." 
Having  attempted  in  vain  to  rouse  the  French  people,  he  again 
joined  his  army.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Allies  had  crossed  the 
Rhine,  and  penetrating,  after  a  desperate  struggle,  into  the 
heart  of  France,  they  entered  Paris. 

33.  The  situation  of  Bonaparte  having  now  become  hope- 
less, he  abdicated  the  throne  of  France,  and,  after  various  de- 
liberations, the  island  of  Elba  was  fixed  upon  for  his  future 
residence  ;  but  he  was  allowed  to  retain  the  title  of  emperor. 
The  mighty  empire  which  he  had  raised  was  suddenly  crum- 
bled to  the  dust;  and  Louis  XVIII.  was  restored  (1814)  to 
the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 

34.  A  General  Congress  of  European  sovereigns  was  im- 
mediately assembled  at  Vienna,  to  arrange  and  settle  the  affairs 
of  Europe,  with  a  view  to  restore,  yet  with  many  variations, 
the  aiKiient  order  of  things.  But  while  the  sovereigns  were 
deliberating  on  these  matters,  Bonaparte,  dissatisfied  with  his 
situation,  made  another  effort  to  regain  the  throne  of  France. 
Landing  at  Frejus,  he  marched  with  1140  men,  without  op- 
position, through  the  country ;  presented  himself  in  an  open 
carriage  to  the  royal  army  at  Melun  ;  was  received  with  shouts 
of  applause ;  the  same  evening,  entered  Paris  in  triumph^ 
amidst  the  loudest  acclamations ;  was  proclaimed  emperor ; 
and  Louis  XVIII.  fled,  on  his  approach,  to  the  frontiers. 
This  progress  of  the  exiled  emperor  through  France,  which 
was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  exploits  that  he  ever  per- 
formed, is  without  a  parallel  in  history,  and  evinces,  in  the 
most  striking  manner,  his  ascendency  over  the  French  nation. 
In  20  days  from  his  landing  at  Frejus,  he  found  himself  quietly 
seated  on  the  throne,  without  having  spilled  a  drop  of  blood. 

35.  Aware  that  he  had  not  returned  to  his  former  power,  he 
therefore,  in  order  to  strengthen   his  authority,   issued  soma 


FRANCE.  165 

popular  decrees,  establishing  the  freedom  of  the  press,  abol- 
ishing the  slave  trade,  and  regulating  the  taxes  which  weighed 
most  heavily  on  the  people  :  he  also  condescended  to  offer 
them  the  plan  of  a  constitution  very  different  from  the  system 
of  despotism  upon  which  he  had  before  acted,  and  containing 
many  excellent  regulations. 

36.  He  had,  however,  but  liille  time  for  legislative  meas- 
ur';«.  As  soon  as  his  arrival  in  France  was  known  at  Vienna, 
h<  was  declared  by  the  Congress  a  traitor  and  an  ovitlaw  ; 
and  a  new  and  formidable  coalition  was  immediately  formed 
against  him  among  the  European  powers.  He  placed  himself 
once  more  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  but  was  entirely  de- 
feated by  the  Allies  under  the  command  of  Wellington  and 
Bluclier,  in  the  memorable  battle  of  Waterloo,  which  cost  the 
French  army  upwards  of  40,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded. 

37.  This  battle  sealed  the  fate  of  Bonaparte.  He  returned 
immediately  to  Paris,  abdicated  the  throne  in  favor  of  his  son, 
and  afterwards  surrendered  himself  to  Captain  Maitland,  of 
the  Bellerophon,  claiming,  in  a  letter  to  the  Prince  Regent  of 
England,  an  asylum,  "  like  Themistocles,  among  the  most 
powerful,  most  constant,  and  most  generous  of  his  enemies." 
By  the  unanimous  agreement  of  the  allied  sovereigns,  he  was 
sent  a  prisoner  to  St.  Helena,  where  he  arrived  on  the  17th  of 
October,  1815;  and  there  died  on  the  5th  of  May,  1821,  in  the 
6th  year  of  his  captivity,  and  52d  of  his  age. 

38.  The  career  of  Bonojxirte  surpassed,  in  many  respects, 
that  of  every  great  conqueror  who  preceded  him.  No  other 
man  has  appeared  on  the  theatre  of  the  world,  who  has  been 
the  cause  of  so  many  and  so  astonishing  revolutions,  or  whose 
contemporaiy  fame  has  been  so  widely  extended.  In  his  27th 
year,  he  was  raised  to  the  chief  command  of  the  French  army  ; 
at  the  age  of  30,  he  caused  himself  to  be  elected  First  Consul ; 
and  in  his  35th  year,  he  was  proclaimed  Emperor  of  France, 
During  the  ten  years  that  he  possessed  the  imperial  throne,  he 
was  the  most  powerful  potentate,  not  only  of  the  age,  but  of 
modern  times ;  and  he  made  the  world  tremble  by  the  terror 
of  his  name. 

39.  He  may  be  emphatically  called  a  king-maker ;  for  r.e 
raised  to  the  rank  of  kings  three  brothers,  one  brother-in-law, 
and  three  German  electors ;  Bernadottc,  also,  one  of  his  mar- 
shals, was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Sweden.  The  last  four  were 
recognized,  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  among  the  legitimate 
sovereigns  of  Europe. 

40.  He  united  in  his  own  person,  at  an  early  period  of  hia 
life,  and  in  an  advanced  state  of  society,  the  conqueror,  the 
usurper,  and  the  lawgiver.     He  triumphed  over  civilized  en- 


166  FRANCE. 

emies ;  legislated  in  a  refined  age ;  and  seized  upon  the  seep 
tre  of  a  powerful  and  enlightened  people,  among  powerful  and 
enlightened  rivals.  To  him  France  is  indebted  for  an  admi- 
rable code  of  laws,  in  the  formation  of  which  he  was  an  efli- 
cient  agent,  in  wliich  he  greatly  prided  himself,  and  with 
regard  to  which  he  was  repeatedly  heard  to  say,  he  "  could 
wish  to  be  buried  with  it  in  his  hands." 

41.  He  favored,  in  many  instances,  liberal  principles ;  "pat- 
ronized merit  independent  of  rank  ;  encouraged  liberally  such 
branches  of  science  as  were  useful  to  his  pui poses;  granted 
religious  toleration ;  removed  or  diminished  many  abuses ; 
broke  down  oppressive  feudal  and  ecclesiastical  institutions 
and  establishments ;  and  left  France,  and  also  Europe,  in 
many  respects,  in  a  better  condition  than  he  found  them.  But 
though  he  was  not  more  unprincipled  than  other  great  con- 
querors have  been,  yet  his  ruling  passion  was  evidently  insatia- 
ble ambition  and  lust  of  power,  to  which  he  was  ready  to  sac- 
rifice every  principle  of  justice  and  humanity.  No  man  ever 
enjoyed  a  greater  opportunity  of  benefiting  his  species  than  he  ; 
but  this  opportunity  he  cast  away,  except  so  far  as  it  suited  his 
own  purposes  of  self-aggrandizement.  He  chose  to  be  an 
Alexander  or  a  Csesar,  rather  than  a  Washington  ;  a  subverter, 
rather  than  a  protector,  of  liberty ;  a  terror  and  a  scourge, 
rather  than  a  delight  and  a  blessing,  to  mankind. 

42.  He  exercised  over  his  own  dominions  a  military  des- 
potism :  his  ambition  prompted  him  to  sacrifice,  without  scru- 
ple, the  rights  and  independence  of  nations,  and  rendered  him 
an  enemy  to  freedom,  and  to  the  repose  of  the  woi-ld.  It  was 
not,  therefore,  without  reason,  that  the  friends  of  liberty,  of 
peace,  and  of  human  improvement,  exulted  at  his  downfall. 
His  eventful  life,  and  his  miserable  end,  furnish  a  most  in- 
structive lesson  on  the  instability  of  human  affairs,  and  the 
vanity  of  human  glory. 


SECTION   VIII. 

Louis  XVIII. ;    Charles  X. :  —  Revolution  of  1830;    Louis 

Philippe  :  —  Revolution  of  1848  ;  Republican  Constitution  ; 
Louis  Napoleon,  President. 

1.  After  the  second  dethronement  of  Bonaparte,  Louis 
XVIII.  was  again  (1815)  placed  on  the  throne,  and  a  second 
pacification  took  place  at  Paris.  France  was  reduced  to  nearly 
the  same  limits  as  before  the  revolution ;  she  was  compelled 
lo  restore  much  of  the  plunder  which  had  been  collected  al 


FRANCE.  167 

Paris,  to  pay  .£28,000,000  sterling,  as  a  partial  indemnification 
Cor  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and  to  maintain,  for  fivo  years,  an 
army  of  occupation,  consisting  of  150,000  allied  troops,  to 
bo  placed  in  16  frontier  fortresses.  In  1817,  the  Allies  con- 
sented to  reduce  the  army  of  occupation  to  one  fifth  ;  and  in 
1818,  it  was  wholly  withdrawn.  —  Those  officers  who,  in  spite 
of  their  oaths  to  Louis,  had  sided  with  Bonaparte  in  his  attempt 
tc  roascend  the  throne  of  France,  were  tried  for  treason  and 
condemned  :  some  of  them,  among  whom  was  Marshal  Ncy , 
were  shot ;  and  others  were  exiled. 

2.  Louis  XVIII.,  who  was  a  man  of  cultivated  mind  and 
liberal  views,  found  his  situation  a  difficult  one,  on  account  of 
the  conflicts  of  different  political  parlies,  the  ultra-royalists, 
Uonapartists,  and  liberals  ;  and  his  policy  was  somewhat  vari- 
able, though  the  ultra-royalist  party,  for  the  most  part,  had  the 
ciscendency.  One  of  the  principal  events  during  his  reign  was, 
in  concert  with  the  northern  powers  of  Europe  (1823),  an  in- 
vasion of  Spain,  by  a  French  army,  under  the  Duke  d''Angou- 
Jeme,  by  means  of  which  Ferdinand  VII.  was  released  from 
his  thraldom,  and  restored  to  the  plenitude  of  his  power ;  and 
the  designs  of  the  Constitutionalists  of  that  country,  for  estab- 
lishing a  more  liberal  system  of  government,  were  frustrated. 

13.  Louis  XVIII.  was  succeeded,  in  1824,  by  his  brother, 
Count  d'Artois,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Charles  X,  and  wlio 
was  much  inferior  to  Louis  in  talent,  and  in  the  liberality  of 
his  political  views.  Charles  seems  to  have  learnt  little  wis- 
dom from  the  troubled  which  the  Bourbon  family  had  experi- 
enced ;  and  he  ascended  the  throne  imbued  with  the  exploded 
dogmas  of  a  preceding  age.  His  course  of  life  had  been  very 
licentious ;  but,  before  he  came  to  the  throne,  his  morals  were 
much  improved  ;  and  he  had  become,  and  so  continued  as  long 
as  he  lived,  much  under  the  influence  of  priests. 

4.  His  reign  was  signalized  by  two  enterprises  of  foreign 
war  of  some  importance  :  one  in  favor  of  the  Greeks,  in  which 
I^" ranee  united  with  England  and  Russia ;  the  other  against 
Algiers^  which  city,  after  a  siege  of  six  days,  surrendered  to 
the  French  army,  on  the  5th  of  July,  1830. 

5.  The  contests  between  the  different  political  parties,  which 
had  agitated  the  preceding  reign,  continued  and  became  more 
violent  in  this.  Charles  sided  strongly  with  the  ultra-royalists, 
and  promoted  men  of  that  party  to  the  highest  otliccs ;  and  the 
government  endeavored,  in  various  ways,  to  check  the  rising 
spirit  of  liberty,  by  exerting  an  influence  on  the  elections,  by  dis- 
.solving  the  chambers,  and  by  restraining  the  liberty  of  the  press. 

6.  In  March,  1830,  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  made  a  strong 
Brand  against  the  ministry,  of  which  Prince  Polignac  was  the 


168  FRANCE. 

head  ;  and,  in  consequence  of  this,  the  chamber  was  dissolved 
by  the  king ;  new  elections  were  ordered,  and  the  two  cham- 
bers were  convoked  for  the  3d  of  August.  The  elections 
followed ;  and  it  was  soon  found  that  the  liberal  party  had  se- 
cured a  large  majority.  In  consequence  of  this  result,  the 
ministers  made  a  report  to  the  king,  which  was  published  on 
the  26th  of  July,  accompanied  by  three  ordinances :  one  dis- 
solving the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  another  suspending  the  liberty 
of  the  press,  and  a  third  altering  the  law  of  election. 

7.  All  the  liberal  newspapers  in  Paris  were  suppressed ;  tlie 
bank  refused  to  discount  bills ;  the  manufacturers  discharged 
their  workmen ;  and  Paris  was  in  a  state  of  great  commotion. 
On  the  morning  of  the  27th,  the  newspapers  appeared  as 
usual ;  and  the  seizure  of  the  presses,  and  the  imprisonment 
of  the  editors,  were  signals  for  revolution. 

8.  The  citizens  immediately  took  up  arms  against  the  gov- 
ernment, and  on  the  29th,  after  a  contest  of  three  days,  having 
obtained  a  complete  victory  over  the  king's  guards,  the  liberal 
deputies,  who  had  assembled  in  Paris,  appointed  General  La- 
fayette commander-in-chief  of  the  National  Guards.  The  two 
chambers  met  on  the  3d  of  August ;  and  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, on  the  6th,  declared  the  throne  of  France  to  be  vacant, 
adopted  the  new-modelled  charter,  and  voted,  on  the  7th,  to 
invite  the  Duke  of  Orleans  to  become  King  of  the  French. 
The  Duke  accepted  the  crown  on  the  8th,  and  took  the  pre- 
scribed oath  on  the  9th. 

9.  Charles  had  already  fled  from  Paris.  He  soon  went  to 
England,  thence  to  Edinburgh,  and  resided  for  some  time  at 
Holyrood  House.  He  afterwards  proceeded  to  Austria,  and 
died  at  Goritz,  in  lUyria,  on  the  4th  of  November,  1836,  in  the 
80th  year  of  his  age. 

10.  Louis  Philippe  —  (the  son  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  who 
made  himself  infamous  as  the  associate  and  dupe  of  the 
Jacobin  party  in  the  first  French  revolution,  and  who  re- 
nounced his  family  name,  and  assumed  that  of  Egalite)  — 
was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  enemies  of  despotism  and 
frien:Js  of  liberty  and  constitutional  government.  The  authors 
of  this  revolutionary  movement  cherished  the  expectation  that 
he  would  carry  out  their  political  principles  ;  but  in  this  they 
were  much  disappointed.  He  proved  himself  to  be  a  man  of 
eminent  ability,  had  able  men  for  his  ministers,  among  whom 
may  be  named  Perier,  Gerard,  Mole,  Thiers,  Soult,  and  Gui- 
zot ;  and  he  always  exerted  a  strong  personal  influence  in  di- 
recting the  measures  of  the  government. 

11.  His  policy  in  relation  to  foreign  states  was  pacific  ;  and 
the  condition  of  France  was  greatly  improved,  during  his  reign, 


FRANCE.  169 

wilh  respect  to  education,  agriculture,  commerce,  and  manu- 
factures ;  also  by  internal  improvement,  particularly  by  exten- 
sive lines  of  railroad,  which  connect  the  capital  with  different 
parts  of  the  country.  The  navy  was  much  increased  ;  and  the 
city  of  Paris  was  fortified  at  immense  expense,  and  in  a  style 
of  grandeur  unequalled  in  modern  times.  Louis  Philippe, 
however,  did  not  make  himself  a  popular  sovereign,  but  mani- 
fested moi-e  inclination  to  increase  his  own  power  and  aggran- 
dize his  family,  than  to  gratify  the  wishes  of  his  subjects  or 
increase  their  political  privileges.  By  his  arbitrary  measures 
in  restraining  the  liberty  of  the  press  and  the  freedom  of  dis- 
cussing political  affairs,  he  imitated  the  example  of  Charles  X., 
and  he  also  shared  a  similar  fate. 

12.  The  most  considerable  foreign  achievement  of  the 
French  arms,  during  this  reign,  was  the  complete  subjugation 
of  Algeria^  and  its  establishment  as  a  French  colony,  which 
was  effected  after  a  long  and  sanguinary  struggle  with  the  na- 
tives. The  heroic  Arab  leader,  Abdcl  Kader,  surrendered  in 
1847. 

13.  Although  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe  was  con- 
ducted with  ability,  and  the  state  of  the  country  generally 
prosperous,  yet  great  discontent  prevailed  among  the  lower 
classes,  particularly  in  the  capital  and  other  large  cities. 
These  classes  were  deeply  imbued  with  democratic  principles ; 
revolts  and  conspiracies  were  frequent ;  and  no  less  than 
seven  attempts  were,  during  his  reign,  made  upon  the  life  of 
the  king. 

14.  Care  was  taken  by  the  government  to  promote  the  inter- 
est and  to  secure  the  support  of  the  wealthy  and  privileged 
classes,  which  possessed  the  exclusive  right  of  voting  at  the 
elections  ;  and  these  classes  upheld  the  throne,  and  sanctioned 
a  system  of  excessive  taxation,  which  enabled  the  king  to 
strengthen  himself  by  the  maintenance  of  a  numerous  army, 
and  by  the  multiplication  of  lucrative  offices,  which  were  be- 
stowed with  an  especial  design  of  gaining  support  to  the  gov- 
ei'nment. 

15.  The  system  of  obtaining  a  venal  support  of  the  govern- 
ment was  carried  so  far  as,  at  length,  to  disgust  all  classes. 
The  government  was  loudly  charged  with  corruption  in  pecu- 
niary matters,  and  with  improper  interference  in  elections. 
Great  dissatisfaction  was  likewise  excited  by  severe  laws 
against  the  press,  and  against  the  right  of  public  discussion. 

16.  These  offensive  measures  were  ascribed  to  the  influence 
of  the  king  himself,  rather  than  to  his  ministers ;  and  the  im- 
pression gained  ground  among  the  people,  that  it  was  his  inten- 
tion to  abridge  the  liberties  of  Finance,  and  that  he  cared  more 

15 


lit)  FRANCE. 

for  the  welfare  of  his  family  than  for  that  of  the  nation,  —  an 
impression  strengthened  by  the  eagerness  which  he  exhibited 
to  contract  marriages  and  alliances  with  the  courts  which  were 
known  to  be  most  hostile  to  the  progress  of  liberal  principles. 

17.  The  popular  discontent  was  much  augmented,  in  1847, 
by  a  severe  commercial  revulsion,  which  depressed  trade,  low- 
ered the  wages  of  labor,  and  rendered  almost  intolerable  the 
heavy  taxation,  which  had  been  sufficiently  oppressive  even  ni 
j)criods  of  the  greatest  prosperity.  In  that  year,  the  opponents 
of  the  government  began  to  hold,  throughout  the  kingdom,  a  se- 
ries of  public  dinners,  or  reform  banquets,  as  they  were  termed, 
for  the  purpose  of  discussion  and  agitation.  At  these  meet- 
ings, which  were  numerously  attended,  speeches  were  made, 
in  which  the  conduct  and  measures  of  the  government  were 
criticized  with  great  severity. 

18.  At  length  it  was  resolved  to  hold  a  reform  banquet  in 
Paris,  on  Sunday,  the  20th  of  February,  1848.  The  king's 
ministers  (Guizot  and  his  colleagues)  directed  the  police  to 
prohibit  the  meeting,  on  the  pretence  that  it  was  of  a  seditious 
nature,  and  v/ould  cause  disturbance  of  the  public  peace.  The 
friends  of  reform,  deeming  this  prohibition  illegal,  determined 
to  disregard  it,  though  they  postponed  the  banquet  till  Tuesday, 
the  22d. 

19.  On  that  day,  vast  crowds  of  citizens,  greatly  excited  by 
the  course  of  the  ministry,  assembled  in  the  streets  of  Paris, 
and  were  soon  engaged  in  conflict  with  the  military  forces 
which  had  been  poured  into  the  city  to  the  number  of  nearly 
80,000.  The  people  took  arms  from  the  shops  and  houses, 
raised  numerous  barricades,  and  attacked  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  and  the  residence  of  Guizot,  from  both  of  which, 
however,  they  were  repulsed  by  the  troops. 

20.  On  the  two  following  days,  the  insurrection  became  still 
more  general.  The  National  Guards  refused  to  act,  or  joined 
the  insurgents,  who  were  everywhere  victorious  against  the 
king's  troops,  and  finally  carried  by  storm  the  Palais  Royal 
and  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries ;  from  the  latter  of  which  the 
throne  was  taken  in  triumph,  and  publicly  burnt  in  the  street. 
The  king,  after  repeated  unsuccessful  attempts  to  form  an  ac- 
ceptable ministry,  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  grandson,  the  Count 
of  Paris,  and  fled,  with  the  royal  family,  to  England.  Guizot, 
the  prime  minister,  also  escaped  to  London. 

21.  The  revolutionists  or  insurgents,  consisting  chiefly  of 
the  people  and  workmen  of  Paris,  refused  all  terms  of  concili- 
ation or  compromise,  exclaiming,  "  It  is  too  late  !  "  A  pro- 
visional government  was  immediately  instituted,  consisting  of 
the  following  seven  distinguished  men :  Dupont  de  L'Eure 


FRANCE.  171 

Lamartine,  Arago,  Marie,  Gamier  Pages,  Ledru-RolUn,  and 
Cremieux. 

22.  The  provisional  government  immediately  proclaimed 
France  a  republic,  with  the  motto,  "  Liberty,  Equality,  Fra- 
ternity !  "  A  decree  was  issued  abolishing  all  hereditary  titles 
and  distinctions  of  rank ;  also  abolishing  slavery  in  the  French 
colonics;  and  ordering  the  election,  by  universal  suffrage,  of 
a  national  assembly  of  900  members,  to  meet  in  Paris,  on  the 
4th  of  May,  1848,  to  frame  a  constitution. 

23.  The  National  Assembly  met  on  the  4th  of  May,  and 
the  government  was  organized.  In  the  succeeding  month  of 
June,  a  violent  insurrection  broke  out  in  Paris ;  the  city  was 
declared  in  a  state  of  siege,  and,  to  restore  order.  General 
Cavaignac  was  appointed,  by  the  Assembly,  military  dictator, 
or  chief  of  the  executive  government. 

24.  After  a  session  of  six  months,  the  National  Assembly 
proclaimed  a  constitution  of  a  very  liberal  and  democratic 
character,  which  provided  for  the  election  of  a  President,  by 
universal  suffrage,  for  the  term  of  four  years,  with  a  provision 
that  he  could  not  be  reelected ;  and  also  for  the  election  of  a 
single  legislative  body,  styled  the  National  Assembly,  consist- 
ing of  750  members. 

25.  An  election  was  made  under  this  constitution  in  Decem- 
ber, 1848,  when  Louis  Napoleon  [Charles  Louis  Napoleon  Bo- 
naparte] was  cliosen  by  an  immense  majority,  having  received 
about  5,500,000  votes  out  of  about  7,500,000.  He  was  to 
hold  the  office  for  four  years,  ending  in  May,  1852. 

26.  Louis  Napoleon  is  the  nephew  of  the  late  Emperor 
Napoleon^  and  the  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte^  late  King  of  Hol- 
land. His  mother  was  Hortense,  daughter  of  the  Empress 
Josephine,  by  her  first  marriage. 

27.  The  Emperor  Napoleon  had  four  brothers,  Joseph, 
Lucien,  Louis,  and  Jerome.  Joseph,  the  eldest,  left  no  sons  ; 
and  Lucien,  the  second  brother,  being  in  disgrace  in  1804, 
when  Napoleon  became  Emperor,  he  and  his  posterity  were 
excluded  from  the  succession.  Louis  Napoleon,  therefore, 
claims  the  right  of  succession,  not  by  right  of  primogeniture, 
but  by  the  laws  of  the  empire,  as  established  by  his  imperial 
uncle.  —  Previous  to  his  election  as  President,  he  had  been 
chiefly  distinguished  by  two  rash  and  abortive  attempts  to 
place  himself  on  the  throne  of  Louis  Philippe  :  one  at  Stras- 
burg,  in  1836 ;  and  the  other  at  Boulogne,  in  1840. 

28.  A  new  National  Assembly  was  elected  in  1849,  and  the 
party  which  headed  the  democratic  revolution  was  defeated. 
The  Assembly  was  not  harmonious,  and  there  was  a  great 
want  of  harmony  between  the  Assembly  and  the  President. 

29.  The  most  important  transaction,  in  relation  to  foreign 


172  FRANCE. 

affairs,  during  the  presidency  of  Louis  Napoleon,  was  the  in- 
tervention in  relation  to  the  government  of  the  pope.  In  1848. 
a  revolution  broke  out  at  Rome ;  the  pope,  Pivs  IX,  was  de- 
prived of  his  temporal  power ;  a  republican  government  was 
established  ;  and  the  pope  fled  to  Gaeta,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  In  April,  1849,  a  French  army,  commanded  by 
General  Oudinot,  was  sent  to  Italy,  and  after  a  severe  attack 
and  bombardment,  the  city  of  Rome  surrendered,  and  on  the 
3d  of  July,  the  French  army  entered  it,  overthrew  the  repub- 
lican government,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  pope  to  return, 
reinstated  in  his  former  power. 

30.  In  1851,  Louis  Napoleon,  as  the  term  of  his  presidency 
was  drawing  near  its  close,  had  recourse  to  different  manoeu- 
vres to  get  the  clause  in  the  constitution,  that  forbade  his  re- 
election, abrogated.  After  having  failed  to  induce  the  Assem- 
bly to  sustain  his  views,  and  having  secured  the  support  of  a 
large  part  of  the  army,  he  achieved,  by  a  coup  d''etat,  one  of 
the  most  extraordinary  usurpations  recorded  in  history.  Early 
in  the  morning  of  the  2d  of  December,  he  dissolved  the  As- 
sembly, seized  and  imprisoned  such  of  the  members  as  would 
not  acquiesce  in  his  usurpation,  and  also  other  liberal  states- 
men, and  some  of  the  most  distinguished  generals,  suppressed 
all  the  newspapers,  except  such  as  were  devoted  to  his  views, 
and  declared,  not  only  Paris,  but  a  great  part  of  the  depart- 
ments, in  a  state  of  siege. 

31.  Having  thus  possessed  himself  of  power,  bewailed  on 
the  people  of  France  to  vote,  by  universal  suffrage,  yes  or  no, 
on  the  question  whether  he  should  be  President  for  ten  years, 
with  dictatorial  powers.  To  this  call,  the  people  responded, 
by  an  immense  majority,  in  his  favor.  He  then  proclaimed  a 
constitution,  or  form  of  government,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
despotic  in  Europe,  and  according  to  which  the  ministry  are 
responsible  only  to  him  ;  and  he  holds  the  appointment  of  the 
senators  and  council  of  state,  and  nominates  the  candidates 
for  election  to  the  legislative  body. 

32.  On  the  7th  of  November,  1852,  the  senate,  in  compli- 
ance with  the  will  of  the  President,  adopted  a  measure,  by  86 
votes  out  of  87,  to  reestablish  the  imperial  governvient,  and 
the  people  were  called  upon  to  ratify  the  measure  by  their 
votes,  on  the  20th  and  22d  of  that  month.  The  vote  w^as  offi- 
cially declared  on  the  1st  of  December ;  the  whole  number  of 
votes  being  8,180,660,  of  which  7,864,189  were  in  favor  of 
the  empire.  Thus,  in  just  one  year  after  the  coup  (Tetat,  or 
usurpation  of  the  President,  he  was,  in  accordance  with  the 
vote  of  the  people,  declared  Emperor  of  the  French,  under  the 
title  of  Napoleon  III.,  and  the  hereditary  title  secured  in  his 
line. 


FRANCE. 


178 


Chronological  Table  of  French  History.  —  JVb.  1. 

From  Pepin,  752, 

to  the  Death  of  Henry  III.,  1589. 

A.  D. 

Kings. 

■j. 

700 

— 

Carlovingian  Race. 

52 

Pepin 

16 

Son  of  Charles  Mattel,  founds  the  second  or 

Bth 

Carlovirgian  Race  of  French  kings 

63 

Charlemagne 

46 

The  greatest  sovereign  of  the  age ;  ftnuids,  in 
800,  the  Empire  of  the  West. 

800 

— 

— 

14 

Louis  I. 

26 

The  empire  divided  into  three  kingdoms. 

40 

Charles  I. 

37 

Battle  oi  Fontenay  ;  invasion  of  the  Normans. 

77 

Louis  II. 

2 

Makes  grants  to  the  nobles  and  bishops. 

9«A 

79 

Louis  III.  ) 
Carloman  \ 

5 

Reign  jointly. 

84 

Charles  II. 
Eudes 
Charles  III. 

4 
10 

The  imperial  dignity  transferred  to  Germany. 

93 

25 

Invasion  of  the  Normans  under  Rollo. 

900 

22 

Robert 

1 

23 

Rotlolph 

13 

Defeats  the  Normans. 

36 

Louis  IV. 

18 

Surnamed  OutrcTncr  or  Stranger. 

\Qth 

54 

Lolhaire 

32 

Hugh  the  Great,  a  powerful  nobleman. 
Governed  by  Hugh  Capet,  son  of  Hugh  the  Great. 

86 

Louis  V. 

I 

Capetian  Race. 

87 

Hugh  Capet 

9 

Obtains  the  crown ;  founds  the  Capetian  Race. 

96 

Robert 

35 

A  victim  of  papal  tyranny. 

1000 

— 

— 

31 

Henry  I. 

29 

Prevalence  of  duelling. 

will 

60 

Philip  I. 

43 

First  Crusade ;  Peter  the  Hermit. 

1100 

~ 

— 

s 

Louis  VI. 

29 

An  able  and  useful  sovereign. 

\2th 

37 

Louis  VIL 

43 

Second  Crusade ;  St.  Bernard  ;  Abelard. 

80 

Philip  II. 

43 

A  powerful  sovereign;  third  Crusade. 

1200 

— 

— 

23 

Louis  VIII. 

3 

Crusade  against  the  Albigenses. 

26 

St.  Louis  IX. 

44 

Engages  in  two  Crusades ;  dies  at  Tunis. 

XZih 

70 

Philip  III. 

15 

IVIassacre  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers. 

35 

Philip  IV. 

29 

Quarrels  with  Boniface.    Knights  Templars. 

1300 

14 

Louis  X. 

2 

16 

John  I. 

Dies  an  infant  four  days  old. 

16 

Philip  V. 

5 

The  Salic  Laio  recognized. 

22 

Charles  IV. 

6 

Supports  his  sister  Isabella  of  England. 

nth 

Branch  of  Valois. 

23 

Philip  VI. 

22 

Defeated  at  Cressy,  &c. ;  gains  Dauphiny. 

50 

John  II. 

14 

Defeated  at  Poitiers,  and  taken  prisoner. 

64 

Charles  V. 

16 

Recovers  the  Enslish  liossessions.     Library. 

1400 

80 

Charles  VI. 

42 

Defeated  by  the  English  at  Agincourt. 

22 

Charles  VII. 

39 

The  siege  of  Orleans  raised  by  Joan  of  Arc. 

61 

Louis  XI. 

22 

The  Tiberius  of  France ;  title  Most  Christia?!. 

15rA 

83 

Charles  VIII. 

15 

Makes  an  expedition  again.st  Naples. 

98 

Louis  XII. 

17 

Du/te  of  Orleans  ;  League  of  Cambray. 

1500 

_ 

— 

15 

Francis  I. 

32 

Duke  of  AngnulSme ;  an  able  sovereign;  a  pa- 
tron of  literature  ;  at  war  with  Charles  V. 

47 

Henry  II. 

12 

Defeated  at  St.  Cluentin  ;  recovers  Calais. 

59 

Francis  II. 

1 

Husband  of  Mary.  Queen  of  Scots. 

\6th 

60 

Charles  IX. 

14 

Civil  Wars  commence :  Guise,  Condi,  and 
Coligny ;  St.  Bartholomew  Massacre. 

74 

Henry  III. 

15 

League  formed  against  the  Protestants ;  the 
king  assassinated  by  James  Clement. 

.15 


174 


FRANCE. 


Chronological  Table  of  French  History.  —  JVo.  2. 
From  Henry  IV.,  1580,  to  the  Revolution  of  1848. 


A.  D. 

1500 

]600 

nth 

1700 

ISth 

1800 


\Oth 


Kings. 


Henry  IV. 


Louis  Xlil. 


Loui3  XVI. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte 

Louia  XVin. 
Charles  X. 
Louis  Philippe 


President. 
Louis  Napoleon. 


House  of  Bijurlmn. 
A  gre.at  and  popular  sovereign  ;  triumphs  over 
the  Ledgue  in  the  battle  of  Ivry ;  renounces 
Protestantism  and  boconies  Catholic  ;  issues  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  :  Duke  of  Sullij. 


Mary  de  Medici  regent ;  afterwards  Cardi^trd 
Richelieu  prime  minister :  Rochelle  taken, 
and  the  power  of  the  Protestants  crushed : 
Revolt  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 

Possessed  of  talents  and  unbounded  ambition ; 
iiis  reign  the  longest  and  the  most  renowned 
for  literature  and  the  arts  in  French  history, 
also  distinguished  for  military  achievement.^ ; 
Colbert,  Vaubiin,  Turenne,  and  Conde :  the 
canal  of  Languedoc  formed  :  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  revoked ;  500,000  Protestants  exiled. 


Profligate  and  tyrannical;  Mississippi  Scheme 
of  Law:  Pacific  administration  of  Cardinal 
Eleury  ;  War  of  the  Austrian  Sicccession,  end- 
ed by  the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  :  War  with 
England,  and  loss  of  Canada. 

Begins  his  reign  in  a  time  of  great  difficulty 
and  danger ;  7'urgot,  and  afterwards  Necker, 
ministers  :  the  Americans  assisted  :  the  States- 
Geyieral  convoked  ;  the  National  Assembly 
formed  ;  and  the  Rmoliition  begins,  1789. 

France  declared  a  Republic,  1792:  Louis  and 
Clueen  Antoinette  beheaded,  1793:  War  with 
Prussia,  Austria,  Great  Britain,  &c.  :  Robes- 
pierre;  Reign  of  Terror.  (Louis  XVII.  dies 
179.5.)  Bonaparte ;  victories  at  Marengo,  &c. ; 
made  First  Consul,  1799. 


Crowned  emperor;  gains  the  victories  of  ^ms- 
terlitz,  Je^ia,  &c.,  and  extends  his  dominion; 
invades  Russia,  and  gains  the  battle  of  Boro- 
dino ;  retreats ;  defeated  at  Leipsic  ;  deposed 
(1S14)  and  sent  to  Elba  ;  escapes,  and  is  over- 
thrown at  Waterloo  (1815)  :  sent  to  St.  Helena. 

Restored.  Constitutional  Charter  established  : 
Louis  displaced  by  Bonaparte,  but  again  re- 
stored :  Invasion  of  Spain. 

Arbitrary ;  Vilele,  Martignac,  arid  Potignac, 
successively,  ministers  :  Despotic  measures  ; 
Revolution  :  Charles  dethroned. 

Djtke  of  Orlcaiis ;  able,  but  arbitrary  :  The 
Constitutional  Charter  remodelled  :  Algeria  an- 
nexed to  France :  Education  and  Internal  Im- 
provement promoted  :  Censorship  of  the  Press  : 
Reform  Banquets  prohibited  :  Revolution :  The 
King  dethroned:  Provisional  Government:  Re- 
publican Constitution. 

President  of  the  Republic  of  Prance  ;  Odillon 
Barrot  Prime  Minister ;  Expedition  against 
Rome. 


The  figures  on  the  left  hand  of  IheMngs,  in  these  tables,  denote  the  commencemer^ 
of  their  reigns.  Thus  it  aippears  ihatMenry  TV.  began  to  reign  in  1589,  and  reigned  21 
yeare. 


ENGLAND.  175 

ENGLAND. 

SECTION  I.      ' 

The  History  of  England:    The  Roman  Conquest:   The.  Saxon 
Conquest :   The  Heptarchy.  —  Fro7n  B.  C.  55  to  A.  D.  827. 

1.  Tl)e  history  of  no  country,  of  either  ancient  or  modern 
Inncs,  is  richer  in  various  instruction,  or  calculated  to  excite 
iloeper  interest,  than  that  of  England.  We  here  see  the  grad- 
ual rise  of  a  people  from  a  low  state  of  barharism  to  the 
highest  rank  in  national  power,  in  the  arts  both  of  peace 
and  war,  in  commercial  wealth,  and  intellectual  and  moral 
greatness. 

2.  In  England,  liberty  has  maintained  frequent  and  bloody 
conflicts  with  tyranny.  No  nation  can  boast  of  more  ardent 
patriots,  of  firmer  and  more  enlightened  friends  to  the  rights 
and  liberties  of  mankind,  or  men  of  higher  excellence,  or  of 
greater  intellectual  endowments,  tlian  are  presented  to  us  in 
the  eventful  pages  of  English  history. 

3.  To  the  citizens  of  the  United  States,  the  history  of  Eng- 
land is  next  in  importance  to  that  of  their  own  country ;  for  it 
is,  to  a  majority  of  them,  the  history  of  their  own  ancestors 
as  it  is  also  of  the  country  from  which  have  been  derived,  in  a 
great  measure,  their  language  and  literature,  and  their  civil 
and  religious  institutions. 

4.  We  feel  a  peculiar  interest  and  sympathy  in  the  conflicts 
which  civil  and  religious  liberty  has  there  maintained  with  des- 
potism and  bigotry ;  for  our  ancestors  were,  more  or  less,  in- 
volved in  them ;  and  the  first  settlement  and  early  growth  of 
our  own  country  were,  in  a  great  degree,  owing  to  oppression 
and  persecution  in  the  parent  state.  We  have  a  fellow-feeling 
for  the  English  patriots  of  former  days,  and  the  memory  of 
Joh7i  Hampden  is  scarcely  held  in  greater  honor  in  his  native 
country  than  in  this. 

5.  Britain  was  little  known  to  the  rest  of  the  world  till  the 
time  of  its  conquest  by  the  Romans.  Julius  Cccsar  invaded 
the  island  55  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  conquered  u 
part  of  it.  In  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  the  Roman 
general,  Ostorius,  defeated  the  British  king,  Carac'tacus,  and 
sent  him  a  prisoner  to  Rome  ;  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  Suetojiius 
defeated  the  Britons  under  their  queen,  Boadicea  ;  and  the  Ro- 
man dominion  was  completely  established  by  Agricola,  who 


176  ENGLAND. 

first  landed  in  Britxiln,  A.  D.  78.  He  met  with  an  obstinate 
resistance  from  Galgacus,  a  Caledonian  chief,  but  in  a  few 
years  made  a  complete  conquest  of  all  the  southern  parts  of 
the  island. 

6.  At  the  time  of  this  conquest,  the  Britons  were  a  rude  and 
barbarous  people,  divided  into  numerous  tribes.  '  They  were 
clothed  with  the  skins  of  beasts,  and  their  property  consisted 
almost  wholly  in  their  arms  and  cattle.  Their  religion  was 
druidism,  a  cruel  superstition ;  and  the  druids,  their  priests, 
possessed  great  authority.  They  taught  the  transmigration  of 
souls,  and  offered  in  sacrifice  human  victims,  in  great  numbers. 

7.  The  Romans  built  three  walls  across  the  island,  in  order 
to  prevent  irruptions  of  the  inhabitants  from  the  north :  the 
first  was  built  of  turf,  by  the  Emperor  Adria7i,  extending  from 
Sol  way  Frith  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne ;  the  second,  by  An- 
toninus^ of  earth  and  stone,  reaching  from  the  Forth  to  the 
Clyde ;  and  the  third  by  Severus,  of  stone,  running  nearly 
parallel  with  that  of  Adrian.  Other  works  were  also  con- 
structed by  them,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen.  In 
the  5th  century,  the  Romans  took  their  final  leave  of  Britain, 
465  years  after  the  landing  of  Julius  Caesar. 

8.  Soon  afterwards,  the  Scots  and  Picts,  from  the  northern 
part  of  the  island,  invaded  and  ravaged  the  country.  The 
Britons,  in  their  distress,  applied  for  assistance  to  the  Saxons, 
a  warlike  people,  inhabiting  the  north  of  Germany.  A  Saxon 
army  of  1,600  men,  commanded  by  two  brothers,  Hengist  and 
Horsa,  came  (449)  to  their  relief,  and  the  Scots  and  Picts  were 
defeated,  and  driven  into  their  own  territories. 

9.  The  Saxons,  finding  the  country  much  superior  to  their 
own,  procured  from  Germany  a  reinforcement  of  5,000  men, 
Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes,  took  possession  of  Britain,  and  re- 
duced the  inhabitants  to  submission,  or  compelled  them  to  leave 
the  country  or  retreat  to  the  mountains.  —  From  the  Angles 
is  derived  the  name  of  England. 

10.  Violent  contests  afterwards  took  place,  in  which  King 
Arthur,  a  British  champion,  is  said  to  have  defeated  the  Saxons 
in  12  different  engagements.  The  whole  history  of  this  re- 
nowned prince  is  regarded  by  many  as  a  fiction.  But,  with 
respect  to  him.  Lord  Bacon  observes,  that  "  in  his  acts  there  is 
enough  of  truth  to  make  him  famous,  besides  that  which  is 
fabulous."  The  Saxons,  however,  finally  triumphed ;  and  in 
about  150  years  after  their  invasion,  the  Heptarchy,  or  seveji 
Saxon  kingdoms,  were  established,  which  subsisted  about  200 
years,  exhibiting  a  series  of  dissensions  and  contests.  At 
length,  Egbert,  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Cerdic,  the  first  King 
of  Wessex,  by  his  prudence  and  valor,  united  them  into  one 
monarchy,  under  the  name  of  England,  in  827. 


ENGLAND.  177 

11.  In  597,  about  230  years  previous  to  this  event,  Augtis- 
tine,  with  40  monks,  had  been  sent  to  Britain  by  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great,  to  convert  the  Saxons  to  Christianity :  the  Britons 
had  long  before  been  partially  converted.  The  state  of  society, 
however,  was  still  barbarous.  Christianity,  in  the  defective 
form  in  which  it  liad  been  inculcated,  had  not  banished  the 
ignorance  of  the  people,  nor  softened  the  ferocity  of  tlieir 
manners. 


SECTION  II. 

From  the  Foundation  of  the  Monarchy  to  the  Norman  Con- 
quest.  — From  A.  D.  82Tto  1066. 

1.  Scarcely  had  Egbert  established  and  regulated  his  infant 
monarchy,  when  he  found  himself  assailed  by  formidable  ene- 
mies in  the  Danes,  whose  depredations  form  a  prominent  fea- 
ture in  the  early  history  of  England,  and  who  continued,  for 
upwards  of  two  centuries,  to  be  a  scourge  to  the  country. 

2.  The  reign  of  Alfred  the  Great,  the  6th  King  of  England, 
which  began  in  872,  forms  a  distinguished  era  in  the  early 
history  of  the  monarchy.  In  one  year  he  defeated  the  Danes 
in  eight  battles.  But,  by  a  new  irruption,  they  extended  their 
ravages,  and  forced  him  to  solicit  a  peace.  He  was  compelled 
to  seek  his  safety,  for  many  months,  in  an  obscure  part  of  the 
country,  disguised  in  the  habit  of  a  peasant,  and  lived  in  a 
herdsman's  cottage  as  a  servant.  In  this  humble  situation,  the 
herdsman's  wife  is  said,  on  one  occasion,  to  have  ordered  him 
to  take  care  of  some  cakes  that  were  baking  by  the  fire  ;  but 
he  forgot  his  trust,  and  let  them  burn,  for  which  she  severely 
reprimanded  him. 

3.  Success  having  rendered  his  enemies  remiss,  and  his  fol- 
lowers having  gained  some  advantages,  •he  left  his  retreat ; 
and,  in  order  to  discover  the  state  of  the  hostile  army,  he  en- 
tered the  Danish  camp  in  the  disguise  of  a  harper.  He  excited 
so  much  interest  by  his  musical  talents,  that  he  was  introduced 
to  Galhrum,  the  Danish  prince,  and  remained  with  him  some 
days.  Having  discovered  the  unguarded  condition  of  the 
Danes,  he  returned  to  his  adherents,  and  with  a  large  force 
attacked  his  enemies  by  surprise,  and  defeated  them  with  great 
slaughter. 

4.  After  having  restored  tranquillity  to  his  distracted  king- 
dom, he  employed  himself  in  cultivating  the  arts  of  peace,  and 
in  raising  his  subjects  from  tire  depths  of  wretchedness,  igno- 
rance, and  barbarism.     According  to  various  historians,  ha 


178  ENGLAND. 

divided  England  into  counties,  composed  a  code  of  laws,  es 
tablished  trial  by  jury,  founded  the  University  of  Oxford,  insti- 
tuted schools,  and,  for  the  instruction  of  his  people,  translated 
a  number  of  works  into  tlie  Saxon  language. 

5.  The  character  of  Alfred  shines  fortli  with  distinguished 
lustre  in  a  dark  age.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  and  best 
sovereigns  that  ever  sat  on  a  throne,  —  equally  excellent  in  his 
private  and  his  public  character.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
personal  accomplishments  both  of  body  and  mind,  and  is  re- 
puted the  greatest  warrior,  legislator,  and  scholar  of  the  age  in 
which  he  lived. 

6.  He  was  succeeded,  in  900,  by  his  son  Edward.,  surnamcid 
Uic  Elder.,  from  his  being  the  first  English  monarch  of  that 
name.  He  inherited*the  military  genius  of  his  lather,  and  his 
reign  was  a  continued,  but  successful,  struggle  against  the 
Northumbrians  and  Danes,  who  were  powerful  in  the  north  of 
England. 

7.  Alhelstan,  an  able  and  popular  sovereign,  was  successful 
in  his  wars  with  the  Danes,  iSlorthumbrians,  Scots,  Irish,  and 
Welsh,  and  he  enlarged  and  strengthened  his  kingdom.  He 
caused  the  Scriptures  to  be  translated  into  the  Saxon  language, 
and  enacted  a  law  which  conferred  the  rank  of  thane,  or  gen- 
tleman, on  every  merchant  who  made  three  voyages  to  the 
Mediterranean. 

8.  Edmund.,  after  a  short  reign,  was  assassinated  by  the 
notorious  robber,  Leolf.  Edred  was  the  slave  of  superstition, 
and  became  the  dupe  of  the  famous  Dunstan,  who  was  after- 
wards Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  was  canonized  as  a  saint ; 
and  with  regard  to  whose  pretended  conflicts  with  the  devil 
ridiculous  stories  are  related  in  history.  Dunstan  possessed 
great  abilities,  and,  under  the  appearance  of  sanctity,  veiled 
the  most  inordinate  ambition ;  yet,  in  these  times  of  supersti- 
tion and  barbarism,  he  gained  a  wonderful  ascendency  over 
the  sovereign  and  tke  people. 

9.  Edwy,  or  Edwm,  by  marrying  Elgiva,  a  beautiful  prin- 
cess nearly  related  to  him,  gave  offence  to  Dunstan  ;  and 
Archbishop  Odo  caused  her  to  be  put  to  death  in  the  most 
cruel  manner. 

10.  Edgar  promoted  Dunstan  to  the  archbishopric  of  Can- 
terbury, and  made  him  his  chief  counsellor.  His  reign  is  re- 
markable for  being  the  period  in  which  England  was  freed 
from  wolves.  Edgar,  having  heard  of  the  extraordinary  beauty 
of  Elfrida,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Devonshire,  sent  Athel- 
wold,  his  favorite,  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  it.  Athelwold, 
overcome  by  the  charms  of  Elfrida,  on  his  return,  assured  the 
king  that  the  account  of  her  beauty  had  been  greatly  exagger« 


ENGLAND.  179 

ated,  and  obtained  the  king''s  permission  to  marry  her  himself 
But  the  king,  liaving  afterwards  discovered  the  treachery  of 
his  favorite,  put  him  to  death,  and  married  Elfrida. 

11.  Edgar  was  succeeded  by  Edward,  his  son  by  his  first 
marriage,  who  was  assassinated  in  tlie  4th  year  of  his  reign, 
and  19th  of  his  age,  at  the  instigation  of  his  mother-in-law, 
Eifrida ;  and  from  this  circumstance  he  was  surnamed  the 
Martyr. 

12.  Ethel  red  11. ,  the  son  of  Edgar  and  Elfrida,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  11  years.  He  was  a  weak  monarch, 
surnamed  the  Unready.  The  Danes  again  renewed  their  rav- 
ages, and,  by  order  of  the  king,  such  of  these  foreigners  as 
were  settled  thi'oughout  England  were  massacred,  at  the  festi- 
val of  St.  Brice,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex.  The  news 
of  this  barbarous  transaction,  arriving  in  Denmark,  fired  every 
bosom  with  a  desire  of  vengeance. 

13.  A  large  army  of  Danes,  under  their  king,  Sioeyn,  (who 
was  the  grandson  of  Beatrix,  the  daughter  of  Edward  the 
Elder,)  invaded  and  ravaged  the  country.  Ethelred  fled  to 
Normandy,  and  Sweyn  was  acknowledged  (1013)  sole  king  of 
England  ;  but  he  survived  his  exaltation  only  a  short  time,  and 
Ethelred  was  again  restored.  The  latter,  dying  not  long  after- 
wards, was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Edmund,  surnamed  Ironside., 
from  his  strength  and  valor ;  but  his  abilities  and  courage  were 
insufficient  to  save  his  sinking  country. 

14.  On  the  death  of  Sweyn,  his  son  Canute  was  proclaimed 
King  of  England  by  the  Danes.  Having  expelled  a  younger 
brother  who  had  usurped  the  throne  of  Denmark,  Canute  as- 
serted his  claim  to  the  crown  of  England,  invaded  the  country 
with  a  numerous  ai-my,  and  compelled  the  king  to  divide  his 
dominions  with  him.  Edmund  was  soon  after  murdered  by 
the  treachery  of  Edric,  his  brother-in-law,  and  Canute  became 
sole  monarch.  He  was  the  most  powerful  sovereign  of  his 
time  in  Europe,  and  was  styled  the  Great,  from  his  talents  and 
successes.  In  the  former  part  of  his  reign  he  was  severe,  but 
in  the  latter  part  mild  and  beneficent ;  and  he  died  lamented. 

15.  Canute  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Harold,  whose  prin- 
cipal amusement  was  the  chase,  and  who  obtained  the  surname 
of  Harefoot,  from  his  swiftness  in  running.  On  his  death,  the 
throne  was  filled  by  his  brother,  Canute  II.,  or  Hardicanute, 
the  last  of  the  Danish  kines.  The  reigns  of  these  two  mon- 
archs  were  short,  and  signalized  by  few  important  events  ;  and 
both  died  without  issue. 

16.  The  English  now  shook  off  the  Danish  yoke,  and  re- 
Btored  (1041)  the  Saxon  line  in  Edioard,  brother  of  Edmund 
Ironside,  though  the  rightful  heir  of  this  line  was  Edward 


180  ENGLAND. 

Burnamed  the  OtUlaw,  the  son  of  Edmund  Ironside,  who  was 
now  an  exile  in  Hungary.  Edward  had  been  educated  in  a 
monastery  ;  and  with  regard  to  his  life,  says  Mr.  Burke,  "  there 
is  little  that  can  call  his  title  to  sanctity  in  question,  though  he 
can  never  be  reckoned  among  tlie  great  kings."  He  married 
the  daughter  of  Godwin,  the  Earl  of  Kent,  an  ambitious  and 
powerful  nobleman,  who  acted  a  conspicuous  part  during  this 
reign.  Edward  was  canonized  by  the  Pope,  and  received  the 
surname  of  Confessor ;  and  it  was  pretended  that  he  was  fa- 
vored with  the  special  privilege  of  curing  the  scrofula,  or 
king's  evil.  This  power  was  long  supposed  to  have  descend- 
ed to  his  successors,  and  the  superstitious  practice  of  touching 
for  that  disorder  was  continued  by  the  kings  of  England  from 
this  period  till  the  revolution  of  1688. 

17.  Edwai'd  the  Confessor,  dying  without  children,  is  said 
to  have  bequeathed  the  crown  to  William,  Duke  of  Normandy, 
though  Edgar  Atheling,  the  son  of  Edward  the  Outlaw,  was 
the  rightful  heir.  Yet  Harold,  the  son  of  the  Earl  Godwin,  and 
grandson  of  Esthritha,  daughter  of  Sweyn,  was  elected  and 
proclaimed  king  by  the  nobility  and  clergy. 

18.  William  of  Normandy  resolved  to  maintain  his  claim  to 
the  crown  of  England  by  force  of  arms ;  and,  having  raised 
an  army  of  60,000  men,  he  invaded  the  country.  Harold,  at 
the  head  of  an  army  about  equal  in  number,  met  him,  and  was 
defeated  and  slain  in  the  memorable  battle  o(  Hastings  (1066). 
The  Normans  lost  about  15,000  men,  and  the  English  the 
greater  part  of  their  army.  The  nation  soon  submitted  to  the 
sceptre  of  William,  who  was  surnamed  the  Conqueror,  and 
whose  descendants  have,  to  this  day,  occupied  the  throne  of 
England. 


SECTION   III. 

The  Norman  Family: — William  I.,  the  Conqueror;  Wil- 
liam II.;  Henry  I.;  Stephen  {of  Blois).  —  From  A.  I. 
1066/0  1154. 

1.  William  possessed  great  abilities  both  as  a  statesman  and 
a  warrior.  In  his  person  he  was  tall  and  well  proportioned, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  so  strong,  that  scarcely  any  other  per- 
son in  that  age  could  bend  his  bow  or  handle  his  arms.  "  He 
had,"  says  Mr.  Burke,  "  vices  in  his  composition,  and  great 
ones  ;  but  they  were  the  vices  of  a  great  mind  ;  anibition,  the 
malady  of  every  extensive  genius ;  and  avarice,  the  madness 
of  the  wise  :  one  chiefly  actuated  his  youth,  the  other  governed 


ENGLAND.  181 

his  age.    The  general  run  of  men  he  looked  on  with  contempt, 
and  treated  with  cruelty  when  they  opposed  him." 

2.  He  disgusted  the  English  hy  promoting  his  Norman  fol- 
lowers to  all  offices  of  importance.  He  caused  the  Norman 
language  to  be  adopted  in  the  service  of  the  church,  as  well  as 
in  the  courts  of  justice.  He  is  said  to  have  introduced  i\\e  feu- 
dal system^  and  to  have  exchanged  trial  by  jury  for  the  per- 
nicious one  of  single  combat ;  and  he  compelled  the  people  to 
extinguish  their  fires  at  the  sound  of  the  cvrfew  bell  [the  fire' 
covering  IjcU],  which  was  rung  at  8  o'clock  in  the  evening. 

3.  By  his  forest  laws  he  reserved  to  himself  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  killing  game  throughout  the  kingdom ;  and  made 
it  a  greater  crime  to  take  the  life  of  an  animal  than  that  of  a 
man.  He  formed  the  New  Forest  by  depopulating  a  tract 
of  country  about  30  miles  in  circuit,  demolishing  36  parish 
churches,  together  with  the  houses  of  the  inhabitants.  One 
of  the  most  useful  acts  of  his  reign  was  his  compiling  Dooms- 
day Book^  which  contained  a  register  of  all  the  estates  of  the 
kingdom. 

4.  William  II.,  surnamed  Rufus,  from  his  red  hair,  inher 
ited  the  ambition  and  talents  of  his  father;  and  was,  like  him, 
tyrannical,  perfidious,  and  cruel.  After  a  reign  of  13  years, 
which  was  disturbed  by  insurrections,  and  by  quarrels  with  the 
ecclesiastics,  particularly  with  Anselm,  the  primate,  he  was 
accidentally  shot  by  Sir  Walter  Tyrrel,  with  an  arrow  aimed 
at  a  stag  in  the  New  Forest. 

5.  Henry  /.,  surnamed  Beauclerc,  or  the  Scholar,  on  ac- 
count of  his  learning,  was  the  younger  brother  of  William 
Rufus.  He  took  advantage  of  the  absence  of  his  eldest 
brother,  Robert,  the  rightful  heir,  who  was  on  a  crusade  to 
the  Holy  Land,  and  secured  the  crown  for  himself.  He  in- 
vaded his  brother's  Norman  dominions,  and  Robert,  on  his  re- 
turn, was  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  confined  in  Wales  till 
his  death. 

6.  Henry  married  Matilda  of  Scotland,  great  granddaughter 
of  Edmund  Ironside,  and  in  this  way  the  Saxo7i  and  Norman 
families  were  united.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  rendered 
disconsolate  by  the  loss  of  his  only  son,  who  was  drowned  on 
his  passage  from  Normandy ;  and  from  that  fatal  moment  he 
was  never  seen  to  smile.  Henry  was  an  able,  courageous, 
and  accomplished  sovereign ;  but  ambitious,  licentious,  and 
ungrateful. 

7.  On  the  death  of  Henry,  the  crown  fell  by  right  to  his 
daughter,  Matilda,  or  Maud,  married  first  to  Henry  V.,  Em- 

16 


182  ENGLAND. 

peror  of  Germany,  and  afterwards  to  Geoffrey  Planiagenel 
Earl  of  Anjou  By  the  latter  she  had  several  children,  of 
whom  the  eldest  bore  the  name  of  Henry.  But  Stephen.,  & 
nephew  of  the  late  king,  the  most  popular  nobleman  in  the 
kingdom,  and  distinguished  for  his  ambition,  valor,  generosity, 
and  courtesy,  seized  upon  the  crown.  Matilda  immediately 
landed  in  England,  and,  raising  a  small  army,  defeated  Ste- 
phen, and  took  possession  of  the  crown  ;  but  her  haughty  and 
despotic  behavior  caused  a  revolt,  and  Stephen,  in  his  turn,  de- 
feated her,  compelled  her  to  quit  the  kingdom,  and  again  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  throne. 

8.  Henry,  the  son  of  Matilda,  afterwards  invaded  England, 
and,  during  the  heat  of  the  contest,  Eustace,  the  king's  eldest 
son,  was  removed  by  a  sudden  death.  Soon  after  this  event, 
the  jarring  interests  of  the  two  parties  were  reconciled,  Ste- 
phen being  allowed  to  retain  the  crown  during  his  life,  and 
Henry  being  acknowledged  as  his  successor ;  and  this  trans- 
action was  shortly  afterwards  followed  by  Stephen's  death.  — 
During  thisa'eign,  England  was  harassed  and  desolated  by  a 
succession  of  civil  contentions  and  wars,  which  were  carried 
on  with  unrelenting  barbarity  by  the  pillage  and  destruction  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  the  conflagration  of  the  towns. 


SECTION   IV. 

Family  of  Plantagenet:  —  Henry  II. ;  Richard  I. ;  John; 
Henry  III.  ;  Edward  I. ;  Edward  II. ;  Edward  III. ; 
Richard  II.  —  From  A.  D.  1154  to  1399. 

1.  Henry  II.,  the  first  of  the  Plantagenets,  being  descended 
by  his  grandmother  from  the  Saxon  kings,  and  by  his  mother 
from  the  Norman  family,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  to  the  great 
satisfaction  of  the  nation.  He  is  sometimes  called  Shortmantle, 
because  he  brought  the  use  of  short  cloaks  out  of  Anjou  to 
England.  In  addition  to  England,  he  possessed,  by  inherit- 
ance, and  by  his  marriage  with  Eleanor,  heiress  of  the  duchy 
of  Guienne,  nearly  one  half  of  France,  and,  during  his  reign, 
he  conquered  Ireland  ;  so  that  he  had  more  extensive  domin- 
ions than  any  English  monarch  who  had  preceded  him,  and 
was  the  most  powerful  sovereign  of  his  age.  Of  Eleanor,  his 
queen,  Sir  James  Mackintosh  says,  "  She  was  the  firebrand  of 
his  family,  in  whose  eyes  the  fair  dowry  of  Aquitaine  appeared 
a  cover  for  every  crime." 

2.  The  different  countries  of  Europe  had  for  a  century 


ENGLAND.  183 

been  agitated  with  the  contest  between  church  and  state,  or 
the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  authority.  This  contest  reached  its 
height  in  I^ngland  during  Henry's  reign,  of  which  it  forms  a 
prominent  feature.  Thomas  a  Becket,  the  hero  and  martyr 
of  the  ecclesiastical  party,  a  man  of  extraordinary  talents  and 
inordinate  ambition,  exalted  his  power  to  such  a  degree,  that  it 
would  admit  of  a  question,  whether  the  king  or  the  archbishop 
was  the  first  man  in  the  kingdom.  Becket  had  for  some  time 
held  the  office  of  chancellor,  and  lived  in  the  manner  of  a 
prince;  but,  on  assuming  the  oflice  of  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, he  dismissed  his  splendid  train,  cast  off  his  magnificent 
apparel,  abandoned  sj)orts  and  revels,  and  wore  the  habit  of  a 
monk.  "  Religion,"  says  Sir  James  Mackintosli,  "  might  ac- 
quire a  place  in  his  mind  which  she  had  not  before ;  but  it  was 
so  alloyed  by  worldly  passions,  that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to 
trust  on  any  occasion  to  the  purity  of  his  motives." 

3.  During  the  preceding  reign,  the  power  of  the  clergy  had 
increased  to  a  most  exorbitant  height ;  they  were  also  extreme- 
ly corrupt  in  their  morals,  and  committed  with  impunity  the 
most  enormous  crimes.  No  less  than  100  murders  are  said  to 
have  been  proved,  in  the  presence  of  the  king,  to  have  been 
committed  by  ecclesiastics  since  his  accession ;  and  holy  or- 
ders were  esteemed  a  suflicient  protection  for  every  species  of 
crime. 

4.  Henry  resolved  to  restrain  the  authority,  and  reform  the 
abuses,  of  the  clergy,  and  for  this  purpose  he  summoned,  in 
1 164,  a  general  council  of  the  nobility  and  clergy  at  Claren- 
don, and  submitted  to  them  16  propositions,  which  were  agreed 
to,  and  are  known  under  the  title  of  the  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon.  Among  other  things,  it  was  enacted,  that  clergy- 
men accused  of  any  crime  should  be  tried  by  temporal  judges. 
]?ccket,  however,  made  the  most  resotute  and  formidable  re- 
sistance to  the  changes  proposed  by  Henry ;  and,  after  a  long 
s(!ries  of  contests  with  the  haughty  primate,  the  king  was,  on  a 
certain  occasion,  so  exasperated  by  his  conduct,  that  he  rashly 
exclaimed,  "  What !  among  all  those  whom  I  have  obliged,  is 
llierc  none  who  will  avenge  me  of  that  insolent  priest .''  "  The 
words  were  scarcely  spoken,  when  four  knights  of  distinguished 
rank,  interpreting  the  king's  complaints  as  commands,  set  out 
with  a  resolution  to  avenge  the  wrongs  of  their  sovereign. 
They  pursued  the  prelate  into  the  cathedral,  and  assassinated 
him  before  the  altar. 

5.  The  account  of  this  transaction  filled  Henry  with  con- 
sternation, and  caused  great  excitement  in  England.  Becket 
died  a  martyr  to  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  the  manner  of  his 
death  effected  the  triumph  of  his  cause.     He  was  canonized 


184  ENGLAND 

by  the  Pope  as  a  saint,  by  the  title  of  Si.  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury ;  and  numerous  miracles  were  pretended  to  be  wrought 
at  his  tomb,  which  became  a  celebrated  resort  of  pilgrims, 
100,000  of  whom  are  said  to  have  been  present  at  a  jubilee 
which  was  observed  once  in  50  years. 

6.  Henry  publicly  expressed  his  sorrow  for  having  used  the 
rash  words  which  had  occasioned  the  death  of  the  primate,  and 
expiated  his  offence  by  a  humiliating  penance  at  his  tomb. 
Having  approached  within  three  miles  of  Cantei-bury,  he  dis- 
mounted, walking  barefoot  over  the  flinty  road,  wh.ch,  m  some 
places,  he  marked  with  blood,  to  the  consecrated  spot ;  spent 
there,  in  fasting  and  prayer,  a  day  and  night,  and  even  pre- 
sented his  bare  shoulders  to  be  scourged  by  the  monks  with  a 
knotted  cord.  The  assassins  did  penance  by  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem,  where  they  died  ;  and  this  inscription,  in  Latin,  was 
put  on  their  tomb :  "  Here  lie  the  wretches  who  murdered  St. 
Thomas  of  Canterbury," 

7.  The  latter  part  of  Henry's  life  and  reign  presents  an  in- 
volved and  deplorable  scene  of  family  discord  and  contention, 
sons  against  their  father,  wife  against  husband,  and  brother 
against  brother.  His  three  eldest  sons,  instigated  by  their 
mother,  and  assisted  by  Louis  VII.,  King  of  France,  engaged 
in  a  series  of  rebellions,  with  a  design  to  wrest  the  crown  from 
their  father. 

8.  Queen  El«anor  left  her  husband,  and  openly  associated 
herself  with  the  rebellion  of  her  sons ;  but  she  was,  while 
making  her  way  to  the  court  of  France,  taken,  dressed  in  man's 
clothes,  brought  back  to  Henry,  and  kept  in  confinement  dur- 
ing the  rest  of  his  life.  The  queen  had  been  irritated  against 
her  husband  by  his  neglect  and  infidelities,  and  particularly  by 
his  attachment  to  Rosamond  Clifford,  who,  under  the  title  of 
the  Fair  Rosa/nond,  is  described  as  a  woman  of  extraordinary 
beauty,  and  who  made  a  conspicuous  figure  in  the  romances 
and  ballads  of  the  times. 

9.  Henry  had  manifested  for  his  children,  in  their  more 
early  years,  an  affection  bordering  on  excess ;  and  when  he  at 
last  found  that  his  youngest,  unworthy,  but  favorite  son,  John, 
like  all  the  rest,  had  joined  the  confederacy  against  him,  he 
felt  that  his  cup  of  affliction  was  full ;  gave  himself  up  to 
transports  of  ungovernable  grief;  cursed  the  day  of  his  birth ; 
uttered  imprecations  against  his  sons  which  he  could  never  be 
prevailed  upon  to  retract ;  and,  worn  out  with  cares,  disap- 
pointments, and  sorrows,  died  of  a  broken  heart, 

10.  The  character  of  Henry  may  be  regarded  as  a  mixture 
of  the  qualities,  good  and  bad,  naturally  arising  out  of  strong 

ntellect,  a  strong  will,  and  strong  passions.     He  was  distin- 


ENGLAND.  185 

guished  both  as  a  warrior  and  a  statesman ;  and  he  is  ranked 
among  the  ablest  and  most  useful  sovereigns  that  have  occu- 
pied ^the  throne  of  England.  The  government  was  still  des- 
potic ;  but  the  power  of  the  barons  was  restrained  during  this 
reign,  and  the  laws  better  administered  than  they  had  been 
since  the  Conquest. 

1 1 .  Henry  was  a  patron  of  the  arts,  particularly  of  Gothic 
architecture  ;  and  his  reign  is  remarkable  for  being  the  period 
when  many  of  the  sumptuous  English  edifices  were  erected, 
and  also  for  the  introduction  of  various  improvements  with  re- 
gard to  the  conveniences  and  comforts  of  life.  The  arts  of 
luxury,  however,  were  yet  in  a  rude  state.  Glass  windows 
were  regarded  as  a  mark  of  extraordinary  magnificence  ;  and 
the  houses  of  the  citizens  of  London  were  constructed  of  wood, 
covered  with  thatch,  with  windows  of  lattice  or  paper ;  they 
had  no  chimneys ;  and  the  floors  were  covered  with  straw. 

12.  The  description  of  the  magnificence  displayed  by  Beckef., 
while  he  was  chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  will  afford  some  idea 
of  the  rude  state  of  the  arts.  Nobody,  it  is  said  by  contem- 
porary writers,  equalled  him  in  refinement  and  splendor. 
"  Every  day,  in  winter,  his  apartments  were  strewed  with 
clean  straw  or  hay,  and,  in  summer,  with  rushes  or  leaves,  that 
those  who  came  to  pay  their  court  to  him  might  not  soil  their 
fine  clothes  by  sitting  on  a  dirty  floor." 

13.  Richard  7.,  surnamed  Caur  de  Lion,  or  Lion-hearted, 
who  succeeded  his  father,  Henry  II.,  commenced  his  reign  by 
a  cruel  persecution  of  the  Jews.  The  frenzy  for  the  crusades 
was,  at  this  period,  at  its  height  in  Europe.  To  a  prince  of 
the  adventurous  spirit  and  military  talents  of  Richard,  these 
enterprises  presented  irresistible  attractions  ;  and  after  making 
preparation,  he,  in  connection  with  Philip  Augustus  of  France, 
embarked  on  an  expedition  to  the  Holy  Land.  They  took 
Acre  in  concert ;  and  Richard,  especially,  acquired  great  re- 
nown by  liis  exploits,  and  defeated  the  heroic  Saladin  in  the 
battle  of  Ascalon,  in  which  about  40,000  of  the  Saracens  were 
slain. 

14.  On  his  voyage  homeward,  being  shipwrecked,  he  dis- 
guised himself,  with  an  intention  of  travelling  througli  Ger- 
many ;  but  he  was  discovered,  and  imprisoned  by  the  emperor. 
He  was  ransomed  by  his  subjects  for  the  sum  of  ^300,000, 
and,  after  an  absence  of  nine  years,  returned  to  his  dominions  , 
but  he  died,  not  long  after,  of  a  wound  which  he  received  at 
the  siege  of  the  castle  of  Chaluz,  in  France,  belonging  to  one 
of  his  rebellious  vassals. 

15.  Richard,  who  has  been  styled  the  Achilles  of  modern 

Ifi* 


186  i:.\GLAND. 

history,  was  preeminent  for  his  valor,  which  was  ahnost  his 
only  merit.  Even  a  century  after  his  death,  his  name  was 
employed  by  the  Saracen  cavalier  to  cliide  his  horse,  and  by 
the  Saracen  mother  to  terrify  her  children.  His  ambition, 
tyranny,  and  cruelty,  were  scarcely  inferior  to  his  valor ;  his 
laurels  were  steeped  in  blood,  and  his  victories  were  purchased 
with  the  impoverishment  of  his  people. 

16.  Richard  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  murdered  his  nephew  Arthur,  who  was  the  son 
of  Geoffrey,  an  elder  brother,  and  the  rightful  heir.  Philip 
Augustus  of  France  supported  the  claim  of  Arthur  to  the 
throne  ;  and,  on  account  of  his  being  murdered,  he  stripped 
the  English  monarch  of  his  possessions  in  that  country.  In 
consequence  of  this  loss  of  his  territories,  John  received  the 
surname  of  Lackland. 

17.  John  excited  against  himself  the  displeasure  of  Innocent 
HI.,  the  haughty  and  tyrannical  pontiff,  who  proceeded  to  lay 
the  kingdom  under  an  interdict,  and  afterwards  excommuni- 
cated the  king,  and  absolved  his  subjects  from  their  allegiance. 
The  wretched  monarch  was  intimidated  into  submission,  and 
on  his  knees  solemnly  surrendered  his  kingdom  to  the  holy 
see,  consenting  to  hold  it  as  the  Pope's  vassal.  In  this  manner 
he  made  peace  with  the  church,  but  he  brought  upon  himself 
the  universal  contempt  and  hatred  of  his  people. 

18.  The  barons,  under  the  direction  of  Langton,  the  pri- 
mate, formed  a  confederacy,  and  demanded  of  the  king  a  rat- 
ification of  a  charter  of  privileges.  John,  bursting  into  a 
furious  passion,  refused  their  demand.  They  immediately 
proceeded  to  open  war  ;  and  the  king,  finding  himself  deserted, 
was  compelled  to  yield.  He  met  his  barons  at  Runny-mede, 
and,  after  a  debate  of  a  few  days,  signed  and  sealed  (1215) 
the  famous  deed  of  Magna  Charta,  or  the  Great  Charter,  which 
secured  important  liberties  and  privileges  to  every  order  of 
men  in  the  kingdom,  and  which  is  regarded  as  the  great  bul- 
wark of  English  liberty.  John  granted,  at  the  same  time,  the 
Charter  of  the  Forest,  which  abolished  the  exclusive  right  of 
the  king  to  kill  game  all  over  the  kingdom. 

19.  The  character  of  John  is  represented  as  more  odious 
than  that  of  any  other  English  monarch ;  debased  by  every 
vice,  with  scarcely  a  single  redeeming  virtue.  His  reign, 
though  most  unhappy  and  disastrous,  is,  notwithstanding, 
memorable  as  the  era  of  the  dawn  of  English  freedom. 

20.  Henry  III.  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  only 
nine  years,  under  the  guardianship  of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke, 


ENGLAND.  187 

He  was  a  weak  monarcli,  timid  in  danger,  presumptuous  in 
prosperity,  and  governed  by  iniwortliy  favorites.  His  lot  was 
cast  in  a  turbulent  period  of  English  history,  and  his  long  reign 
of  56  years  consisted  of  a  scries  of  internal  conflicts,  though 
it  was  little  disturbed  by  foreign  war. 

21.  The  incapacity  of  the  king  was  more  productive  of  in- 
convenience to  himself  than  of  misery  to  his  subjects.  Under 
his  weak  but  pacific  sway,  the  cause  of  popular  freedom  was 
advanced,  and  the  nation  grew  more  rapidly  in  wealth  and 
prosperity  than  it  had  done  under  his  military  and  more  re- 
nowned predecessors. 

22.  Towards  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Henry,  the 
ijarons,  with  Simo7i  de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester^  at  their 
head,  entered  into  a  confederacy  to  seize  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment ;  and  they  compelled  Henry  to  delegate  the  regal  power 
lo  24  of  their  number.  These  divided  among  themselves  all 
the  oflices  of  government,  and  new-modelled  the  parliament, 
by  summoning  a  certain  number  of  knights,  chosen  from  each 
county. 

23.  This  measure  proved  fatal  to  the  power  of  the  barons ; 
for  the  knights,  indignant  at  Leicester's  usurpation,  concerted 
a  plan  for  restoring  the  king.  A  civil  war  ensued.  Leicester, 
at  the  head  of  a  formidable  force,  defeated  the  royal  army  at 
Lewes,  and  made  both  the  king  and  his  son  Edward  prisoners. 
He  compelled  the  feeble  king  to  ratify  his  authority  by  a 
solemn  treaty ;  assumed  the  character  of  regent,  and  called  a 
parliament,  summoning  two  knights  from  each  shire,  and  depu- 
ties from  the  principal  boroughs  (12C5).  This  is  regarded  as 
the  era  of  the  commencement  of  the  House  of  Commons,  being 
the  first  time  that  representatives  to  Parliament  were  sent  from 
the  boroughs. 

24.  Prince  Edward,  having  at  length  regained  his  liberty, 
took  the  field  against  Leicester,  and  defeated  him  with  great 
slaughter,  in  the  famous  battle  of  Evesham.  In  this  battle, 
Leicester  himself  was  killed,  and  Henry,  by  the  assistance  of 
his  son,  was  again  placed  on  the  throne. 

25.  Edward  I.,  surnamed  Longskanks,  from  the  length  of 
his  legs,  on  succeeding  to  the  throne,  caused  280  Jews  in  Lon- 
don to  be  hanged  at  once,  on  a  charge  of  having  corrupted 
the  coin  ;  and  L5,000  were  robbed  of  their  effects,  and  ban 
ished  from  the  kingdom.  He  soon  after  undertook  to  subdue 
Wales,  and  having  defeated  and  slain  the  sovereign.  Prince 
Llewellyn,  he  annexed  the  country  to  the  crown  of  England. 
He  created  his  oldest  son  Prince  of  Wales,  a  title  which  has 
ever  since  been  borne  by  the  oldest  sons  of  the  English  mon- 
archs. 


188  EN(]LAND. 

26.  The  conquest  of  Wales  inflamed  the  ambition  of  Ed- 
ward, and  inspired  him  with  the  design  of  extending  his  do- 
minion to  the  extremity  of  the  island.  On  the  death  of 
Alexander  III.,  \vlio  left  no  son,  Bruce  and  Baliol  were  com- 
petitors for  the  tlu'one  of  Scotland,  and  Edward  was  chosen 
umpire  to  decide  the  contest  between  the  two  rivals.  He  ad- 
judged the  crown  to  Baliol,  who  engaged  to  hold  it  as  a  vassal 
of  the  King  of  England. 

27.  Baliol,  however,  soon  afterwards  renounped  his  allegi- 
ance ;  hence  arose  a  war  between  England  and  Scotland, 
which  lasted,  with  little  intermission,  upwards  of  70  years, 
and  drenched  both  kingdoms  with  blood.  Edward  invaded 
Scotland  with  a  large  army  ;  defeated  the  Scots  with  great 
slaughter  in  the  battle  of  Dunbar ;  subdued  the  kingdom  ;  and 
Baliol  was  carried  captive  to  London. 

28.  While  Edward  was  prosecuting  a  war  in  France,  the 
Scots  were  roused  to  exertion,  for  the  recovery  of  their  inde- 
pendence, by  their  renowned  hero.  Sir  William  Wallace ;  but, 
after  gaining  a  series  of  victories,  they  were  at  length  defeated 
by  the  King  of  England,  with  immense  loss,  in  the  battle  of 
Falkirk.  Wallace  became  a  prisoner  of  Edward,  who  put 
him  to  death  with  barbarous  cruelty.  The  Scots  found  a 
second  champion  and  deliverer  in  Robert  Bruce,  grandson  of 
the  competitor  of  Baliol,  who,  having  expelled  the  British  from 
the  country,  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors.  Ed- 
ward prepared  to  make  a  new  invasion  with  an  immense  army, 
but  died  after  having  advanced  as  far  as  Carlisle. 

29.  Edward,  who  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  English 
sovereigns,  was  eminent  as  a  warrior  ;  and,  on  account  of  his 
wisdom  as  a  legislator,  lie  has  been  styled  the  English  Jus- 
tinian. But  he  was,  in  disposition,  a  tyrant,  and,  as  often  as 
he  dared,  trampled  on  the  liberties  or  invaded  the  property  of 
his  subjects.  He  was,  however,  admired  by  his  contempora- 
ries, and  his  barons  respected  the  arbitrary  sway  of  a  monarch 
as  violent  and  haughty  as  themselves.  His  reign  was  highly 
advantageous  to  the  kingdom,  particularly  for  the  improve- 
ments made  in  the  national  code,  and  the  administration  of 
justice.  He  repeatedly  ratified  Magna  Charta,  and  an  impor- 
tant clause  was  added  to  secure  the  people  from  the  imposition 
of  any  tax  without  the  consent  of  parliament.  Ever  since  that 
time,  there  has  been  a  regular  succession  of  English  par- 
liaments. 

30.  Edward  11. ,  surnamed  of  Caernarvon,  from  the  place 
of  his  birth,  soon  after  succeeding  to  the  throne,  in  compliance 
with  his  father's  dying  injunction,  invaded  Scotland,  with  an 


ENGLAND.  189 

army  of  100,000  men,  whicli  was  met  at  Bannockhurn  by 
yO,000  Scots,  under  their  king,  Robert  Bruce  (1314).  A 
great  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  English  sustained  a  more 
disastrous  defeat  than  they  had  experienced  since  the  battle 
of  Hastings. 

31.  Edward  II.,  who  possessed  little  of  the  character  of  his 
father,  was  of  a  mild  disposition,  weak,  indolent,  fond  of  pleas- 
ure, and  governed  by  unworthy  favorites,  the  most  famous  of 
wliom  were  Garcston  and  the  two  Spencers.  His  inglorious 
reign  was  characterized  by  the  corruption  of  the  court,  and  by 
contests  and  war  between  the  king  and  the  barons ;  and  his 
life  was  rendered  unhappy  by  a  series  of  mortifications  and 
misfortunes. 

32.  Isabella.,  his  infamous  queen,  fixed  her  affections,  which 
had  long  been  estranged  from  her  husband,  upon  Mortimer^  a 
powerful  young  baron ;  and  she,  together  with  her  paramour, 
formed  a  conspiracy  against  the  king,  and  compelled  him  to 
resign  the  crown  to  his  son.  He  was  then  thrown  into  a  prison, 
and  afterwards  murdered,  by  order  of  Mortimer,  in  a  barbarous 


33.  Edward  III.  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  14 
years.  A  council  of  regency,  consisting  of  12  persons,  was 
appointed,  during  the  minority  of  the  king;  yet  Mortimer  and 
Isabella  possessed  the  chief  control.  But  Edward,  on  coming 
of  age,  could  not  endure  the  authority  of  a  man  who  had  caused 
the  murder  of  his  father,  or  of  a  mother  stained  with  the  foul- 
est crimes.  Mortimer  was  condemned  by  parliament,  and 
hanged  upon  a  gibbet ;  and  Isabella  was  imprisoned  for  life  at 
Castle  Risings,  and  continued  for  28  years  a  miserable  monu- 
ment of  blasted  ambition. 

34.  The  king,  soon  after  he  was  established  on  the  throne, 
made  war  with  the  Scots,  and  defeated  them  with  great  slaugh- 
ter in  the  battle  of  Halidown  Hill  (1333).  On  the  death  of 
Charles  IF.,  he  laid  claim,  in  right  of  his  mother,  to  the  crown 
of  France,  which  he  attempted  to  gain  by  force  of  arms,  in 
opposition  to  Philip  of  Valois,  who  was  acknowledged  by  the 
French  nation  as  the  rightful  heir.  This  claim  involved  the 
two  countries  in  a  long  and  sanguinary  war. 

35.  After  having  made  his  preparations,' Edward  sailed  from 
England  with  a  powerful  armament.  Ills  fleet,  consisting  of 
250  sad,  encountered  that  of  France,  amounting  to  400  ships, 
off"  the  coast  of  Flanders,  and  gained  one  of  the  greatest  naval 
victories  recorded  in  history.  The  loss  of  the  English  is  stated 
at  4,000  men  and  2  ships ;  that  of  tlie  French,  at  30,000  men 
and  230  ships. 


190  ENULAND. 

36.  Edward  then  invaded  F'rance  at  the  head  of  30,000 
troops,  and,  in  the  famous  battle  of  Cressy  (1346),  gained  a 
splendid  victoi-y  over  Philip,  the  French  king,  who  had  an  army 
of  upwards  of  100,000  men,  and  whose  loss  exceeded  30,000. 
This  battle  is  noted  not  only  for  the  greatness  of  the  victor^', 
but  also  for  being  the  first  in  English  history  in  which  cannon 
were  made  use  of,  and  likewise  for  being  the  scene  in  which 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  the  king's  eldest  son,  then  only  16 
yeare  of  age,  commenced  his  brilliant  military  career. —  Ed- 
ward afterwards  besieged  and  took  Calais,  which  remained  in 
the  possession  of  the  English  till  the  time  of   Queen  Mary. 

37.  While  the  English  monarch  was  in  France,  the  Scots, 
under  their  king  David,  invaded  England,  and  were  defeated 
at  NevaWs  Cross,  near  Durham,  by  Philippa,  Edward's  heroic 
queen,  and  their  king  was  led  prisoner,  to  London.  Of  the 
four  generals  under  the  queen,  three  were  prelates. 

38.  John,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  the  throne  of  France, 
took  the  field  with  an  army  of  60,000  men,  against  the  Black 
Prince,  who,  with  only  16,000  troops,  gained  a  signal  victory 
at  Poictiers  (1356).  King  John  was  taken  prisoner,  and  led 
in  triumph,  by  the  victorious  prince,  to  London,  where  he  was 
kept  a  fellow-captive  with  David  of  Scotland. 

39.  Edward,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  sunk  into  indo- 
lence and  indulgence,  and  experienced  a  reverse  of  fortune  ; 
and,  before  his  death,  all  his  conquests,  with  the  exception  of 
Calais,  were  wrested  from  him.  His  son,  the  Black  Prince, 
(so  called  from  the  color  or  covering  of  his  armor,)  falling  into 
a  lingering  consumption,  was  obliged  to  resign  the  command 
of  the  army  ;  and  Charles  V.  of  France,  an  able  sovereign, 
recovered  most  of  the  English  possessions  in  that  country. 
The  death  of  the  Black  Prince,  illustrious  for  his  amiable  vir- 
tues, as  well  as  for  his  noble  and  heroic  qualities,  plunged  the 
nation  in  grief,  and  broke  the  spirits  of  his  father,  who  survived 
him  only  about  a  year. 

40.  Edward  was  the  most  powerful  prince  of  his  time  in 
Europe  ;  and,  in  personal  accomplishments,  is  said  to  have 
been  superior  to  any  of  his  predecessors.  His  domestic  ad- 
ministration was,  in  many  respects,  excellent,  and  advantageous 
to  his  subjects.  The  astonishing  victories,  which  cast  so  much 
military  splendor  on  his  reign,  and  which  are  accounted  the 
most  brilliant  in  English  history,  appear  to  have  dazzled  the 
eyes  both  of  his  subjects  and  foreigners,  who  placed  him  in  the 
fii-st  rank  of  conquerors.  But  his  wars  with  France  and  Scot- 
land were  unjust  in  their  object ;  artd,  after  having  caused  great 
suffering  and  devastation,  he  at  last  found  that  the  crowns  of 
those  kingdoms  were  beyond  his  reach. 


ENGLAND.  191 

41.  In  this  reign,  chivalry  was  at  its  zenith  in  England  ,  and 
in  all  the  virtues  which  adorned  the  knightly  character,  in 
courtesy,  munificence,  and  gallantry,  in  all  the  delicate  and 
magnanimous  feelings,  none  were  more  conspicuous  than  Ed- 
ward III.  and  his  son,  the  Black  Prince.  Their  court  was,  as 
it  were,  the  sun  of  that  system,  which  embraced  the  valor  and 
nobility  of  the  Christian  world. 

42.  Richard  II.,  the  unworthy  son  of  Edward  the  Black 
Prince,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  at  the  age  of  11  years.  .  He 
was  indolent,  i)rodigal,  perfidious,  and  a  slave  to  pleasure. 
The  administrutiou  of  the  government,  during  the  minority  of 
the  king,  was  intrusted  to  his  three  uncles,  the  Dukes  of  Lan- 
caster, York,  and  Gloucester,  whose  contests  embroiled  all  the 
public  measures.  Of  these,  the  Duke  of  Lancaster,  John  of 
(raimf,  c~  Ghent,  (so  named  from  the  place  of  his  birtli,)  was 
the  most  distinguished,  and  was  possessed  of  great  wealth  and 
power ;  but  he  became  unpopular,  particularly  with  the  cour- 
tiers and  clergy  ;  and  he  was  noted  for  being  (for  political  rea- 
sons, as  is  supposed)  the  protector  of  Wicklijfe,  the  Reformer, 
whose  opposition  to  the  tyranny  and  corruptions  of  Rome 
commenced  in  the  preceding  reign,  and  gained  him  many  ad- 
iierents. 

43.  A  poll-tax  of  three  groats,  imposed  by  Parliament  upon 
every  male  and  female  above  the  age  of  15  years,  excited 
universal  discontent  among  the  lower  classes,  on  account  of 
its  injustice  in  requiring  as  much  of  the  poor  as  of  the  rich. 
One  of  the  brutal  tax-gatherers,  having  demanded  payment  for 
a  blacksmith's  daughter,  whom  the  father  asserted  to  be  below 
the  age  specified,  v/as  proceeding  to  improper  familiarities  with 
her,  when  the  enraged  father  dashed  out  his  brains  with  a 
hammer.  The  spectators  apj)lauded  the  action  ;  a  spirit  of 
sedition  spread  through  the  kingdom :  and  100,000  insurgents, 
under  Wat  Tyler,  were  soon  assembled  upon  Blackheath.  But 
the  leader  was  slain,  and  his  followers  were  finally  compelled 
to  submit. 

44.  While  the  kingdom  was  convulsed  with  domestic  con- 
tests, it  was  also  engaged  in  hostilities  with  France  and  Scot- 
land. At  Otf.erburn  (1388)  was  fought,  between  the  English 
under  Percy  (surnamed  Hotspur,  on  account  of  his  fiery  tem- 
per) and  the  Scotch  under  Douglas,  a  battle,  in  which  Percy 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  Douglas  was  slain.  —  On  this  battle  is 
founded  the  celebrated  ballad  of  Chevy  Chace. 

45.  Richard  unjustly  banished  his  cousin  Henry,  the  eldest 
Bon  and  heir  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster;  and,*n 
the  death  of  the  duke,  he  seized  upon  his  estate  :  but  the  king 


192  ENGLAND. 

having  afterwards  undertaken  an  expedition  to  Ireland,  in  order 
to  quell  an  insurrection,  Henry,  the  young  duke,  took  advan- 
tage of  his  absence,  returned  to  England,  landed  at  Raven- 
spur,  soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army,  and 
compelled  Richard,  on  his  return,  to  resign  the  crown.  The 
king  being  very  unpopular,  the  parliament  readily  confirmed 
his  deposition  ;  he  was  then  imprisoned,  and  afterwards  mur- 
dered. 

46.  The  Duke  of  Lancaster  was  raised  to  the  throne  with 
the  title  of  Henry  IV.  ;  though  Edmund  Mortimer  was  the 
true  heir  to  the  crown,  being  descended  from  Lionel,  the  3d 
son  of  Edward  III.,  whereas  Henry  was  the  son  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  the  4th  son  of  Edward  III.  —  Hence  began  contests 
between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster.  —  During  this 
reign  and  the  preceding  one,  flourished  Chaucer,  who  has 
been  styled  the  Morning  Star  of  English  poetry. 


SECTION  V. 

Branch  of  Lancaster.  —  Henry  IV. ;    Henry   V. ;    Henry 
VL  —  From  A.  D.  1399  to  146L 

1.  Henry  IV.,  surnamed  Bolingbroke,  from  the  place  of  his 
birth,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  by  the  deposition  and  mur- 
der of  the  lawful  king,  and  the  exclusion  of  the  rightful  heir, 
soon  found  that  the  throne  of  a  usurper  is  but  a  bed  of  thorns. 
A  combination  was  immediately  formed  against  him.  The 
Scots  under  Douglas,  and  the  Welsh  under  Owen  Glendower, 
took  part  with  the  rebels  ;  but  their  united  fbrces  were  defeated 
in  a  most  desperate  and  bloody  battle  at  Shreivslmry,  and  their 
leader,  Percy  [^Hotspur'],  was  killed  (1403). 

2.  While  a  subject,  Henry  was  supposed  to  have  imbibed 
the  religious  principles  of  his  father,  John  of  Gaunt,  the  patron 
of  Wickliffe  and  his  followers.  But,  after  he  was  raised  to  the 
throne,  he  made  his  faith  yield  to  his  interest :  as  he  needed 
the  support  of  the  clergy,  he  procured  their  favor  by  endeavor- 
ing to  suppress  the  opinions  which  his  father  had  supported ; 
and  he  has  the  unenviable  distinction  of  having  his  name  re- 
corded in  history,  as  the  first  English  monarch  that  burnt  his 
subjects  on  account  of  religion. 

3.  Henry  was  distinguished  for  his  military  talents  and  for 
his  political  sagacity ;  and,  had  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  by 
a  just  title,  he  might  have  been  ranked  as  one  of  the  greatest 
of  English  monarchs.     He  had  been  one  of  the  most  popular 


ENGLAND.  193 

noblumcii  in  the  kingdom ;  yet,  althougli  his  reign  was,  in 
many  respects,  beneficial  to  the  nation,  he  became  a  most  un- 
popular sovereign.  His  peace  of  mind  was  destroyed  by  jeal- 
ousy and  by  remorse ;  he  was  an  object  of  pity  even  when 
.seated  on  the  throne ;  and  he  felt  the  truth  of  the  language 
which  Shidvspeare  puts  into  his  mouth,  —  "Uneasy  lies  the 
head  that  wears  a  crown." 

■1.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  imbittered  by  the  extreme 
profligacy  of  his  son  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales.  One  of  the 
prince's  dissolute  companions  having  been  indicted  before  the 
chief  justice.  Sir  William  Gascoigne,  for  some  misdemeanor, 
he  was  so  exasperated  at  the  issue  of  the  trial  that  he  struck 
the  judge  in  open  coiu't.  The  venerable  magistrate,  mindful 
of  the  dignity  of  his  office,  ordered  the  prince  to  be  committed 
to  prison.  Henry  quietly  submitted,  and  acknowledged  his 
error. 

5.  When  the  circumstance  was  related  to  the  king,  he  is 
sold  to  have  exclaimed,  in  a  transport  of  joy,  "  Happy  is  the 
kin"  who  has  a  magistrate  endowed  with  courage  to  execute 
the  laws  upon  such  an  offender ;  still  more  happy  in  having  a 
son  willing  to  submit  to  such  chastisement !  " 

6.  Henry  F.,  on  succeeding  to  the  throne,  immediately  as- 
sembled his  former  riotous  companions  ;  acquainted  them  with 
his  intended  reformation  ;  forbade  their  appearance  in  his  pres- 
ence till  they  should  imitate  his  example  ;  and  dismissed  them 
with  liberal  presents.  He  commended  the  chief  justice  for  his 
impartial  conduct,  and  encouraged  him  to  persevere  in  a  strict 
execution  of  the  laws.  This  victory,  which  he  gained  over 
himself,  is  incomparably  more  honorable  to  him  than  the  mar- 
tial exploits  which  have  immortalized  his  name. 

7.  The  Wicklijit.es,  or  Lollards,  were  now  numerous  in 
England,  and  had  for  their  leader  the  famous  Sir  John  Old- 
castle,  Lord  Cobham,  a  nobleman  of  distinguished  talents,  and 
liigh  in  favor  with  the  king.  But  Henry,  in  mailers  of  religion, 
being  under  the  influence  of  an  intolerant  clergy,  and  particu- 
larly of  Archbishop  Arundel,  gave  up  to  the  fury  of  his  ene- 
mies the  virtuous  and  gallant  nobleman,  who  was  condemned 
for  heresy,  hung  up  by  the  middle  with  a  chain,  and  roasted 
alive. 

8.  Henry  revived  the  claim  to  the  crown  of  France,  and, 
taking  advantage  of  disorders  in  that  kingdom,  invaded  it . 
with  an  army  of  about  15,000  men,  and  defeated  the  French 
army,  amounting  to  60,000  men,  in  the  memorable  battle  of 
Agincourt  (1415).  The  loss  of  the  French  amounted  to 
11,000  killed,  and   14,000  prisoners.     Henry  afterwards  re- 

17 


194  ENGLAND. 

duced  all  Normandy,  was  declared  regent  of  France,  and 
acknowledged  heir  to  the  crown.  But  death  soon  put  an  end 
to  his  career  of  victory. 

9.  Henry  V.  was  one  of  the  most  heroic  of  the  English 
sovereigns,  eminent  as  a  warrior,  beloved  and  adored  by  mili- 
tary men  ;  and  his  short  reign  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in 
English  history  for  military  achievement.  But  his  conquests 
were  of  little  benefit  to  his  people. 

10.  Henry  VI.  succeeded  to  the  throne  when  an  infant  only 
nine  months  old,  and  was  proclaimed  king  both  of  England 
and  France.  His  education  was  Intrusted  to  Cardinal  Beau- 
fort., brother  of  his  grandfather,  Henry  IV. ;  and  his  uncles, 
the  Dukes  of  Bedford  and  Gloucester.,  were  appointed  pro- 
tectors or  guardians  of  his  dominions,  the  former  for  France, 
and  the  latter  for  England. 

11.  Charles  VII.,  the  Dauphin  of  France,  being  supported  by 
the  French  people,  recovered  the  kingdom  by  degrees  ;  and  the 
English,  being  compelled  by  that  extraordinary  heroine,  Joan 
of  Arc,  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans,  were  afterwards  stripped  of 
all  their  conquests  in  that  country,  except  Calais  and  Guienne, 

12.  Henry,  on  coming  of  age,  proved  himself  to  be  mild 
and  inoffensive,  but  totally  incapable  of  managing  the  reins  of 
government :  "  he  would  have  adorned  a  cloister,  though  he 
disgraced  a  crown."  He  married  Margaret  of  Anjou,  a 
woman  whose  distinguished  talents,  ambition,  and  heroism 
well  fitted  her  to  supply  the  defects  of  her  husband  in  the  wars 
which  distracted  his  reign  ;  but  her  intriguing  disposition  and 
cruelty  multiplied  the  number  of  her  enemies. 

13.  Discontents  prevailing  among  the  people,  an  insurrec- 
tion broke  out,  headed  by  Jack  Cade,  who  assumed  the  name 
of  John  Mortimer,  and  collected  an  army  of  20,000  rebels ; 
but  he  was  defeated  and  slain. 

14.  The  Duke  of  Gloucester,  a  favorite  of  the  nation,  the 
chief  pillar  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  and  presumptive  heir 
to  the  crown  [that  is,  heir  in  case  the  king  should  die  without 
issue],  had  opposed  the  marriage  of  Henry  with  Margaret. 
From  this  circumstance,  he  became  odious  to  the  queen,  and 
his  death  soon  after  took  place  in  a  suspicious  manner.  This 
event,  added  to  the  imbecility  of  the  king,  encouraged  the 
Duke  of  York  to  assert  his  claim  to  the  crown. 

15.  The  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  were  both  descended 
from  Edward  III. ;  that  of  York  from  his  third  son,  and  that  of 
Lancaster  from  his  fourth  :  the  rightful  title  was,  of  course,  on 
the  side  of  the  former.  Each  party  was  distinguished  by  a 
particular  badge  or  symbol ;  that  of  the  house  of  York  was  a 


i:n(:land.  195 

wliite  rose,  and  thai  of  Lancaster  a  red  one ;  hence  the  civil 
contests  were  styled  the  wars  of  the  Ttco  Roses. 

16.  This  fatal  quarrel,  which  now  (1455)  broke  out  into 
open  hostilities,  lasted  30  years,  was  signalized  by  12  sangui- 
nary pitched  battles,  and  marked  by  the  most  unrelenting  bar- 
barity. During  the  contest,  more  than  100,000  of  the  bravest 
men  oC  the  nation,  including  80  princes  of  the  blood,  fell  on 
tiie  field,  or  were  executed  on  the  scaffold. 

17.  In  the  battles  of  St.  Alhaii's  and  NoiUJutmpton,  the  Lan- 
castrians were  defeated,  and  the  king  was  taken  prisoner ;  but 
Queen  Margaret,  having  collected  a  large  army,  gained  the 
battle  of  Wakefield  (1460),  in  which  the  Duke  of  York  waf^ 
defeated  and  slain.  But  his  son  and  successor,  at  the  head  of 
a  numerous  army,  entered  London,  amidst  the  shouts  of  the 
citizens,  and  was  proclaimed  king,  by  the  title  of  Edioard  IV. 


SECTION   VI. 

Branch  of  York  :  —  Edward  IV. ;    Edward   V. ;    Richard 
III.  —  From  A.  D.  1461  to  1485. 

1.  The  new  king  was  not  permitted  to  enjoy  the  crown  in 
peace.  The  heroic  Margaret  again  collected  an  army  of 
60,000  men,  which  was  met  by  the  Yorkists,  to  the  number  of 
upwards  of  40,000,  under  the  command  of  Edward  and  the 
Earl  of  Waj'zcick.  A  tremendous  battle  was  fought  (1461)  at 
Towlon,  in  wliich  Edward  obtained  a  decisive  victory,  and  up- 
wards of  36,000  Englishmen,  slain  by  one  another's  hands, 
were  left  dead  on  the  field.  —  Henry,  having  been  taken  pris- 
oner, was  confined  in  the  Tower,  and  there,  after  being  lib- 
erated, and  a  second  time  imprisoned,  was  finally  murdered 
(1471),  as  was  supposed,  by  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  after- 
wards Richard  III. 

2.  The  unfortunate  queen,  accompanied  by  her  son,  a  boy 
eight  years  old,  while  flying  from  her  enemies,  was  benighted 
in  Hexham  forest,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  ruffians,  who 
stripped  her  of  her  jewels,  and  treated  her  with  great  indignity. 
After  she  was  liberated  from  them,  being  overcome  with  ia- 
tigue  and  terror,  she  sunk  in  despair  ;  but  was  suddenly  roused 
by  the  approach  of  a  robber,  with  a  drawn  sword.  Seeing  no 
way  to  escape,  she  rose  and  presented  to  him  her  child  :  "  My 
friend,"  said  she,  "  here  is  your  king's  son,  whom  I  commit  to 
your  protection."  The  man,  pleased  with  this  unexpected  con- 
fidence reposed  in  him,  afforded  every  assistance  in  his  power, 


196  ENGLAND. 

and  conducted  the  mother  and  son,  through  numerous  perils,  to 
a  small  seaport,  whence  they  sailed  to  Flanders. 

3.  The  House  of  York  had  been  liithcrto  supported  by  the 
important  assistance  of  Nevil,  Earl  of  Warwick,  the  most 
powerful  baron  in  England,  and  the  greatest  general  of  his 
time.  But  Edward  having  given  offence  to  his  benefactor, 
Warwiclc  was  induced  to  abandon  him,  and  to  support  the  Lan- 
castrians. By  his  exertions,  Edward  was  deposed,  and  Henry, 
after  having  been  a  prisoner  six  years  in  the  Tower,  was  re- 
leased, and  again  proclaimed  king.  Thus  Warwick,  having 
restored  Henry,  whom  he  had  deposed,  and  pulled  down  Ed- 
ward, whom  he  had  placed  on  the  throne,  obtained  the  title  of 
king-maker. 

4.  But  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Barnet,  Edward  prevailed, 
and  the  brave  Warwick  was  slain.  The  intrepid  Margaret, 
having  returned  to  England,  made  a  last  effort  for  the  crown, 
in  the  desperate  battle  of  Tewkeshury  (1471),  which  proved 
fatal  to  her  hopes.  Her  son  was  slain,  and  she  hei"self  was 
taken  prisoner ;  but  was  afterwards  ransomed  by  the  King  of 
France,  and  in  that  country  she  passed  the  remainder  of  her 
life  in  obscurity  and  neglect. 

5.  Edward,  being  now  secured  on  the  throne,  gave  himself 
up  to  unrestrained  indulgence  in  acts  of  tyranny,  cruelty,  and 
debauchery.  His  brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  who  had  as- 
sisted him  in  gaining  the  crown,  he  caused,  with  the  concur- 
rence of  his  other  brother,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  to  be 
impeached  and  condemned ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  been 
drowned  in  a  butt  of  IVlalmsey  wine.  —  Edward  was  possessed 
of  talents,  and  was  reputed  the  handsomest  and  most  accom- 
plished man  of  his  time  in  England.  The  love  of  pleasure 
was  his  ruling  passion.  "  His  character,"  says  an  elegant 
writer,  "  is  easily  summed  up  :  —  his  good  qualities  were  cour- 
age and  beauty ;  his  bad  qualities,  every  vice."  —  It  was  in 
this  reign  that  the  art  qf  printing  was  introduced  (1471)  into 
England  by  William  Caxton. 

6.  Edward  IV.  left  two  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom,  being  only 
13  years  of  age,  was  proclaimed  king,  by  the  title  of  Edward 
V.  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  brother  to  Edward  IV., 
being  appointed  protector,  caused  Lord  Hastings,  and  other 
distinguished  persons,  to  be  executed  without  trial ;  seized  the 
crown,  on  the  pretence  that  his  nephew,  Edward  V.,  and  his 
brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  were  illegitimate  ;  and  procured 
himself  to  be  proclaimed  king,  by  the  title  of  Richard  III. 
After  two  months,  the  young  princes  disappeared,  and  are  said 
to  have  been  smothered  in  the  Tower,  by  order  of  Richard. 


ENGLAND.  201 

the  day  after  the  execution,  and  who  died  soon  after  giving 
birth  to  Prince  Edward.  He  next  married  Aiine  of  Cleves, 
but  soon  discarded  her,  because  he  did  not  find  her  so  hand- 
some as  she  had  been  represented  ;  and  Thomas  CroTmvell, 
Earl  of  E.ssex,  his  prime  minister,  having  been  instrumental 
in  bringing  about  this  joyless  marriage,  lost  the  favor  of  his 
sovereign,  and  suffered  death  on  the  scaffold.  Catharine 
Howard,  whom  he  next  married,  was  condemned  and  exe- 
cuted for  adultery.  But  Catharine  Parr,  his  6th  wife,  had  the 
good  fortune  to  survive  him. 

17.  Henry  VIII,  left  three  children,  Mary,  daughter  of 
Catharine  of  Arragon,  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Anne  Boleyn, 
and  Edward,  son  of  Jane  Seymour.  The  last  succeeded  him, 
widi  the  title  of  Edward  VL,  in  his  10th  year,  Edward  Sey- 
mour, Duke  of  Somerset,  uncle  of  the  young  king,  being  ap- 
pointed protector ;  and,  after  his  fall,  the  Duke  of  Northum- 
berland was  raised  to  the  same  office.  Edward's  short  reign 
was  distracted  by  contests  between  those  to  whom  the  direction 
of  public  affairs  was  intrusted  ;  but  the  Protestant  influence 
prevailed  in  the  government,  the  cause  of  the  Reformation  was 
promoted,  and  the  reformed  liturgy  was  modelled  under  the 
direction  of  Cranmer ;  yet  a  great  part  of  the  people  were  still 
attached  to  the  Catholic  faith. 

18.  Edward,  a  prince  of  great  hopes  and  virtues,  died  in 
his  16th  year,  deeply  lamented.  So  different  was  his  charac- 
ter from  that  of  his  father,  that  he  is  said  never  to  have  signed 
an  order  for  an  execution  against  any  person  without  shedding 
tears.  Just  before  his  death,  he  had  been  prevailed  upon,  by 
the  interested  influence  and  intrigues  of  the  Duke  of  Northum- 
berland, the  protector,  to  set  aside  his  sisters,  Mary  and  Eliza- 
beth, and  bequeathe  the  crown  to  Jane  Grey,  great-grand- 
daughter of  Henry  VII.,  who  was  married  to  Lord  Guilford 
Dudley,  a  son  of  the  protector. 

19.  Notwithstanding  the  attempt  to  alter  the  succe.ssion, 
Mary,  who  was  educated  a  strict  Catholic,  was  acknowledged 
the  rightful  heir,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  (1553)  ;  and  the 
Catholic  religion  was  again  restored.  Her  short  reign  is  noted 
for  the  cruel  persecution  of  the  English  Reformers ;  and  her 
character  is  painted  by  Protestant  writers  in  the  darkest  colors  ; 
but^t  may  be  remarked,  by  way  of  apology  for  her,  that  the 
treatment  wiiich  both  she  and  her  mother  had  received   from 

-  those  who  rejected  the  papal  supremacy  was  calculated  to  in- 
flame her  prejudices ;  that  she  was  under  the  influence  of  evil 
counsellors ;  and  that  she  lived  in  an  age  when  the  principlea 


202  ENGLAND. 

of  religious  toleration  were   not  understood   or  practised   by 
either  Catliolics  or  Protestants. 

20.  Immediately  after  the  death  of  Edward,  Jane  Grey,  who 
had  been  appointed  successor,  by  the  intrigues  of  her  friends, 
was  proclaimed  queen  by  her  adherents  ;  but  after  wearing  the 
crown  ten  days,  she  resigned  it,  and  would  gladly  have  re- 
turned to  private  life.  The  youth  and  innocence  of  herself 
and  her  husband  (neither  of  them  exceeding  their  17th  year) 
pleaded  strongly  in  their  favor ;  yet  they  were  condemned  and 
beheaded,  as  also  were  their  principal  supporters. 

21.  Lady  Jane,  who  is  described  as  a  young  woman  of  sin- 
gular virtues  and  accomplishments,  sent,  on  the  day  of  her 
execution,  a  message  to  her  husband,  who  desired  to  see  her, 
informing  him  that  the  tenderness  of  their  last  interview  would 
be  too  much  for  her  to  bear.  "  Tell  him,"  added  she,  "  that 
our  separation  will  be  only  for  a  moment.  We  shall  soon 
meet  each  other  in  a  place  where  our  affections  shall  be  for 
ever  united,  and  where  misfortunes  will  never  more  disturb  our 
eternal  felicity.'" 

22.  A  cruel  persecution  was  now  commenced  against  the 
Reformers ;  the  men  who  had  been  most  forward  in  establish- 
ing the  Protestant  religion  in  England,  were  singled  out  for 
punishment ;  and  among  the  most  eminent  martyrs  who  were 
burnt  at  Smithfield  (1555),  were  Cranvier,  Latimer,  Ridley, 
Hooper,  Ferrar,  and  Rogers.  By  tlie  cruelty  of  these  pro- 
ceedings, the  feelings  of  the  people  were  shocked  ;  tlie  excel- 
lent character  of  most  of  the  sufferers,  and  the  undaunted 
spirit  which  they  exhibited,  produced  a  strong  sensation  in 
their  favor,  and  diminished  the  influence  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  ;  so  that  these  barbarities  tended  to  forward,  rather  tlian 
to  check,  the  progress  of  the  Reforrnalion. 

23.  Mary,  in  the  second  year  after  she  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  was  married  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  —  a  union  unpopular 
with  her  subjects,  and  productive  of  little  happiness  to  herself; 
and,  in  the  last  year  of  her  reign,  the  French  took  Calais, 
which  had  been  in  possession  of  the  English  210  years.  Soon 
after  this  event,  the  queen  died,  feeling  bhter  vexation  for  the 
loss,  and  for  being  aware  that  she  was  an  object  of  aversion  to 
her  husband  and  to  a  great  part  of  her  subjects.  She  left  few 
to  lament  her,  and  there  was  scarcely  the  semblance  of  sorrow 
for  her  death. 

24.  The  accession  of  Elizaheth  to  the  throne,  in  1558,  was 
hailed  by  the  nation  with  joyful  acclamations.  She  had  a  long 
and  auspicious  reign,  during  which  tranquillity  was  maintained 
*ui  her  dominions,  while  the  neighboring  nations  were  convulsed 


ENGLAiND.  203 

with  dissensions;  and  England  rose,  from  the  rank  of  a  secon- 
•lary  kingdom,  to  a  level  with  the  first  states  of  Europe.  The 
Protestant  religion  was  again  restored  and  protected ;  the 
Uhurch  of  England  was  established  in  its  present  form ;  and 
the  nation  attained  a  higher  state  of  prosperity  than  it  had  over 
before  known,  in  agriculture,  commerce,  arts,  and  literature. 
This  reign,  which  some  have  considered  as  the  Augustan  age 
of  English  literature,  was  illustrated  by  the  great  names  of 
Hooker,  Bacon,  Spenser,  and  S/iakspeare. 

25.  A  remarkable  circumstance  in  this  period  of  English 
history  relates  to  the  repeated  and  sudden  changes  with  respect 
to  religion,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  sovereign  and 
the  court.  Many,  who  had  been  Protestants  under  Edward, 
became  persecuting  Romanists'under  Mary  ;  and,  under  Eliza- 
beth, they  were  again  transformed  into  zealous  promoters  of 
the  Reformation.  Religion,  it  would  seem,  hung  so  loose  upon 
a  great  part,  that  they  were  equally  ready  to  conform  to  the 
Church  of  Rome  or  to  Protestanism,  as  might  best  suit  their  tem- 
poral interests.  Of  9,000  beneficed  clergymen,  the  number 
of  those  who  preferred,  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  to  quit 
their  preferments  rather  than  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was 
less  than  200. 

26.  Elizabeth  is  charged  with  treachery  and  cruelty  in  her 
treatment  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  a  woman  whose  extraor- 
dinary beauty  and  misfortunes  seem,  in  the  minds  of  many, 
to  have  thrown  a  veil  over  all  the  defects  of  her  character. 
Mary  was  great  grand-daughter  of  Henri/  VH.,  and  next  heir 
to  Elizabeth  to  the  throne  of  England.  She  had  been  educa- 
ted in  France  as  a  Catholic,  and  married,  when  very  young,  to 
the  dauphin,  afterwards  Francis  II.  She  had  been  persuaded, 
imprudently,  to  assume  the  tide  of  Queen  of  England,  —  a 
circumstance  which  proved  fatal  to  her  peace. 

27.  On  the  death  of  Francis,  she  returned  to  Scotland,  at 
the  age  of  18  years.  At  this  period  the  Reformalion,  by  the 
zealous  labors  of  John  Knox,  had  made  great  progress  in  that 
country ;  and  the  people  regarded  their  Catholic  queen  with 
abhorrence,  and  looked  to  her  enemy  Elizabeth  for  support. 

28.  Mary  married,  for  her  second  husband,  her  cousin,  Henry 
Stuart,  (Lord  Darnley),  who  soon  became  disagreeable  to  her 
and  was,  in  less  than  two  years,  murdered :  in  about  three 
months  after  this  tragical  event,  she  married  (1567)  the  Earl  oj 
Bothwell,  who  was  stigmatized  as  the  murderer  of  Darnley. 
Her  conduct  excited  against  her  the  whole  kingdom  of  Scotland. 
Public  indignation  could  no  longer  be  restrained.  The  nobles 
rose  against  her  and  her  husband,  Bothwell :  she  was  taken,  con- 
fined in  the  castle  of  Lochleven,  and  was  at  length  compelled 


204  ENGLANIJ. 

to  resign  the  crown  to  her  infant  son,  who  was  proclaim'id 
James  VI.  ;  and  her  illegitimate  brother,  the  Earl  of  Murray^ 
a  friend  to  the  Reformation,  was  appointed  regent  during  the 
young  king's  minority. 

29.  In  less  than  a  year,  Mary,  by  the  assistance  of  friends, 
effected  her  escape  from  Lochleven  Castle,  and  fled  into  Eng- 
land, hoping  to  secure  the  favor  of  her  rival,  Elizabeth.  In 
this,  however,  she  was  disappointed.  After  being  kept  as  a 
prisoner  more  than  18  years  in  Fotheringay  Castle,  she  was 
tried  on  an  accusation  of  having  been  accessory  to  a  conspiracy 
against  the  Queen  of  England,  was  condemned,  and  beheaded 
in  one  of  the  rooms  of  her  prison,  in  the  45th  year  of  her  age. 

30.  Elizabeth  warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Nether' 
lands,  in  their  revolt  against  the  authority  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain ;  and  her  admiral.  Sir  Francis  Drake,  had  taken  some 
of  the  Spanish  possessions  in  South  America.  To  avenge 
these  offences,  and  to  subjugate  the  leading  Protestant  power, 
the  Spanish  "  Invincible  Armada,''''  a  more  formidable  fleet 
than  Europe  had  ever  before  witnessed,  was  fitted  out  for  the 
invasion  of  England. 

31.  This  armament  consisted  of  150  ships,  3,000  pieces  of 
cannon,  and  27,000  men.  It  entered  the  English  Channel  in 
the  form  of  a  crescent,  extending  its  two  extremities  to  the  dis- 
tance of  seven  miles.  It  was  met  by  the  English  fleet,  con- 
sisting of  108  ships,  commanded  by  those  distinguished  mari- 
time chiefs,  Hoioard,  Drake,  Hawkins,  Frohisher,  and  Raleigh. 
Being  gradually  weakened,  and  finally  overtaken  by  a  storm, 
it  suffered  an  entire  defeat.  Only  50  vessels,  with  6,000  men, 
returned  to  Spain. 

32.  The  age  of  Elizabeth  was  fruitful  in  men  of  talents,  and 
she  was  assisted  in  her  government  by  eminent  statesmen, 
among  whom  were  Bacon,  Burleigh,  and  Walsingham,  men 
wholly  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  nation.  But  her  chief 
personal  favorites  were  unworthy.  Of  these,  in  the  early  part 
of  her  reign,  the  principal  was  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leices- 
ter :  after  his  death,  Robert  Dcvereux,  Earl  of  Essex,  a  young 
nobleman  of  accomplishments,  talents,  and  high  spirit,  pos- 

•  sessed  the  first  place  in  her  affections.  The  queen  and  Essex 
had  many  quarrels  and  reconciliations ;  at  last,  he  broke  into 
open  rebellion,  was  convicted  of  treason,  and  beheaded. 

33.  Elizabeth,  who  had  surprised  the  nations  of  Europe  by 
the  splendor  of  her  course,  was  destined  to  close  the  evening 
of  her  life  in  gloom  and  sorrow.  Some  ascribe  the  deep  de- 
pression and  mental  suffering  which  she,  at  this  period,  en- 
dured, to  the  neglect  which  she  imagined  she  experienced  on 
account  of  her  age  and  infirmities,  when,  to  use  her  own  ex- 


ENGLAND.  205 

pression,  "  men  would  turn  their  backs  on  the  setting,  to  wor- 
ship the  rising,  sun";  others  to  the  revival  of  her  regret  for 
the  death  of  Essex,  whom  she  had  given  up  for  his  invincible 
obstinacy,  but  who,  she  now  discovered,  had  actually  thrown 
himself  upon  her  clemency,  while  his  enemies  had  found 
means  to  conceal  his  ap])lication.  The  Countess  of  Notting- 
ham, now  upon  her  death-bed  (according  to  various  historians), 
sent  for  the  queen,  to  confess  to  her  that  Essex,  while  under 
the  sentence  of  death,  had  desired  her  to  convey  to  Elizabeth 
a  I'ing  which  she  had  given  him,  with  the  assurance  that  the 
sight  of  it  would  at  any  time  recall  her  tenderness;  but  that 
she  had  neglected  to  deliver  it.  The  queen,  in  a  frenzy  of 
passion,  shook  the  dying  countess,  exclaiming,  "  God  may  for- 
give you,  but  I  never  can!  "  From  that  moment  she  sunk  into 
a  deep  melancholy,  rejected  all  sustenance,  and  died  (1603)  in 
profound  grief,  in  the  45th  year  of  her  reign,  and  the  70th  of 
her  age. 

34.  Elizabeth  was  distinguished  for  her  learning,  and  spoke 
fluently  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  Spanish.  She  possessed 
extraordinary  talents  for  government,  was  great  as  a  public 
character,  and  commanded  the  high  respect  of  her  subjects 
and  of  foreign  nations.  Her  three  leading  maxims  of  policy 
were,  to  secure  the  affections  of  her  subjects,  to  be  frugal  of 
her  treasures,  and  to  excite  dissensions  among  her  enemies. 
She  manifested  less  regard  for  the  liberty,  than  for  the  pros- 
I)erity,  of  the  people.  In  the  former  part  of  her  reign,  she  was 
comparatively  moderate  and  humble,  but  afterwards  haughty 
and  severe.  Both  her  disposition  and  her  principles  were  des- 
potic. With  regard  to  religion,  she  persecuted  both  Catholics 
and  Puritans ;  but,  like  her  father,  she  had  a  leaning  towards 
Rome  in  almost  everything  except  the  doctrine  of  papal 
supremacy. 

35.  Her  private  character  is  less  to  be  admired,  being  tar- 
nished with  insincerity  and  cruelty,  and  destitute  of  the  milder 
and  softer  virtues  of  her  sex.  Her  manners  were  haughty  and 
overbearing,  and  her  conversation  grossly  [)rofane.  Vain  of 
her  beauty,  which  she  only  could  discover  ;  delighted  with  the 
jiraise  of  her  charms,  even  at  the  age  of  65 ;  jealous  of  every 
female  competitor,  to  a  degree  which  the  youngest  and  silliest 
of  her  sex  might  despise  ;  and  subject  to  sallies  of  anger  which 
no  sense  of  dignity  could  restrain,  —  she  furnishes  a  remarkable 
instance  of  great  moral  weaknesses  united  with  high  intellec- 
tual superiority. 

18 


206  ENGLAND. 


SECTION   VIII. 

The  Stuart  Family  :  —  James  I. ;  Charles  I. :  —  7%c  Com- 
monioealth  ;  CromioeU  :  —  Charles  II. ;  James  II.  ;  William 
and  Mart/;  Anne.  —  From  A.  D.  1603  lo  1714. 

1.  Elizabeth,  on  the  approach  of  death,  iiominalcd  for  her 
successor  the  son  of  her  rival  Mary,  James  VI.  of  Scothmd, 
who  was  the  rightful  heir  by  descent.  He  took  the  title  of 
Ja7nes  I.  of  England  ;  and  in  him  the  two  crowns  were  united. 
He  was  the  firsc  of  the  Stuaris,  a  family  whose  reign  was  one 
continued  struggle  for  power  between  the  monarch  and  the 
people ;  and  who  were  characterized  by  despotic  principles, 
injudicious  conduct,  and  such  a  want  of  gratitude  and  good 
faith  as  to  be  proverbial  for  leaving  their  friends  in  distress. 

2.  James  had  scarcely  arrived  in  England,  when  a  conspir- 
acy was  discovered  for  subverting  the  government,  and  placing 
on  the  throne  his  cousin,  Arabella   Stuart..     The  celebrated 

'Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  had  been  distinguished  in  the  pre- 
ceding reign,  was  sentenced  to  death  on  an  accusation  of  being 
connected  in  this  plot.  He  was,  however,  reprieved,  cast  into 
prison,  and,  15  years  after  his  condemnation,  was,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  king,  barbarously  beheaded. 

3.  Another  conspiracy  followed,  of  a  more  daring  nature. 
This  was  the  famous  Gunpoicder  Plot.,  a  design  of  some  des- 
perate Catholics  to  blow  up  the  Parliament-house,  and  involve 
in  one  common  destruction  the  king,  lords,  and  commons. 
Just  on  the  eve  of  its  accomplishment,  the  plot  was  discovered, 
and  Guy  Fawkes  was  taken,  having  matches  for  firing  the 
magazine  in  his  pocket. 

4.  It  was  the  characteristic  weakness  of  James  to  attach 
himself  to  worthless  favorites  ;  such  were  Carre,  Earl  of  Som- 
erset, and  ViUiers,  Duke  of  Buckingham,  —  men  on  whom  he 
bestowed  his  favors  with  the  utmost  prodigality,  though  they 
were  of  profligate  character,  odious  to  the  people,  and  were 
possessed  of  no  merit,  except  external  beauty  and  superficial 
accomplishments. 

5.  During  the  reign  of  Mary,  the  Puritans  first  made  their 
appearance ;  and  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  they  became,  in  a 
considerable  degree,  conspicuous.  They  were  strenuous  ad- 
vocates for  freedom  in  the  state,  and  a  more  thorough  reforma- 
tion in  religion.  At  the  accession  of  James,  they  cherished 
high  hopes  that  their  views  would  meet  with  more  favor  than 
during  the  reign  of  the  late  queen,  inasmuch  as  he  had  been 
educated  in  Presbyterianism  ;  but,  of  all  persons,  they  were  the 


L.Nf.l.ANI).  207 

most  disappointed.  So  great  was  iheir  dissatisfaction,  that 
some  of  them  sought  refuge,  from  their  restraints  and  persecu- 
tions, in  the  wilds  of  America,  and  commenced  (1G20)  the 
settlement  of  Neto  England. 

i).  The  leading  characteristic  of  James  was  his  love  of  ar- 
hitrary  power.  The  divine  right  of  kings  to  govern  their  suh- 
jects  without  control  was  liis  favorite  topic  in  conversation,  and 
in  his  speeches  to  parhament.  The  best  part  of  his  character 
was  his  pacific  disposition ;  and  his  reign,  which  lasted  22 
years,  though  ignoble  to  himself,  was,  in  many  respects,  happy 
to  his  people,  who  v/ere  enriched  by  peace  and  commerce. 

7.  In  his  private  character,  his  morals  were  far  from  being 
|)ure.  He  possessed  considerable  ingenuity,  and  a  good  deal 
of  learning,  but  more  pedantry.  lie  blended  a  childish  and 
degrading  familiarity  so  incongruously  with  a  ridiculous  vanity, 
insuilerable  arrogance,  and  a  vulgar  statcliness,  that  he  reminds 
us  more  of  some  mock  king  in  a  farce,  than  a  real  one  on  tlie 
theatre  of  history.  He  was  excessively  fond  of  flattery,  which 
was  dealt  out  to  him  with  an  unsparing  hand  by  his  bishops  and 
parasites,  who  styled  him  the  British  Solomon ;  yet,  in  the 
opinion  of  less  interested  observers,  he  merited  the  appellation 
given  him  by  the  Duke  of  Sully,  that  of  "  the  wisest  fool  in 
Europe."  "  He  was,"  says  Bishop  Burnet,  "  the  scorn  of  the 
age,  a  mere  pedant,  without  true  judgment,  courage,  or  steadi- 
ness, his  reign  being  a  continued  course  of  mean  practices." 

8.  The  increase  of  commerce,  and  consequent  influx  of 
wealth  ;  the  diffusion  of  information  ;  the  little  respect  cher- 
ished for  the  personal  character  of  the  king ;  the  disappointed 
hopes  of  the  Puritans,  the  multiplication  of  their  numbers,  the 
controversies  in  which  they  were  engaged,  and  the  privations 
to  which  they  were  subjected,  —  all  conspired  to  difluse  widely 
the  spirit  of  liberty.  The  current  df  public  opinion  was  now 
strongly  turned  to  an  extension  of  the  rights  of  the  people, 
and  to  a  retrenchment  of  the  power  of  the  sovereign ;  and, 
during  this  reign,  the  seeds  were  sown  of  that  spirit  of  resist- 
ance to  despotic  power,  on  the  part  of  the  people,  which,  in 
the  next,  produced  a  subversion  of  the  monarchy. 

9.  Charles  1.  ascended  the  throne  (1625)  in  his  25lh  year, 
under  favorable  circumstances :  his  title  was  undisputed,  and 
the  kingdom  was  in  a  flourishing  condition.  But  within  the 
last  fifty  years,  public  opinion  in  the  nation  had  undergone  a 
great  change,  and  many  of  his  subjects  were  extremely  jealous 
of  their  civil  and  religious  liberties,  and  would  no  longer  be 
governed  by  precedents  which  had  their  origin  in  times  of  ig- 
norance and  slavery.     He  soon  gave  proof  that  he  inherited 


208  ENGLAND 

the  same  arbitrary  principlts  witli  his  father,  and  the  same 
worthless  favorite,  Burkins;ham.  retained  his  influence  and 
uiithority.  —  He  married  Henrietta  Maria,  daughter  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  who  was  a  zealous  Papist,  and  whose  influence 
over  the  king  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  his 
calamities. 

10.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  James,  Charles,  ac- 
companied by  Buckingham,  had  visited  the  court  of  Madrid, 
in  order  to  solicit  the  hand  of  the  Infanta  in  marriage.  The 
negotiation,  however,  failed  through  the  misconduct  of  Buck- 
ingham, and  England  was  involved  in  a  war  with  Spain.  Soon 
after  Charles  ascended  the  throne,  he  was  offended  with  the 
Parliament  for  refusing  to  grant  him  sufficient  supplies  in 
carrying  on  this  war,  and  for  resisting  his  arbitrary  designs  ; 
and,  having  adopted  the  resolution  to  rule  without  their  aid, 
he  pi'oceeded  to  levy  money,  in  various  ways,  independent  of 
their  authority. 

11.  One  of  these  methods  was  by  a  tax  on  merchandise, 
called  tonnage  and  poundage,  and  another  by  a  tax  called  ship- 
money.  The  money  raised  by  the  latter  was  now  levied,  not 
only  on  seaport  towns,  but  over  the  whole  kingdom ;  and 
Charles  claimed  the  right  to  command  his  subjects,  without  an 
act  of  parliament,  to  provide  and  furnish  ships,  together  with 
men,  victuals,  and  ammunition,  in  such  numbers,  and  at  what- 
ever time,  he  should  think  proper,  —  a  claim  which  struck  at 
the  vital  principle  of  a  free  government.  This  assessment  of 
ship-money  is  the  famous  tax  which  first  roused  the  whole  na- 
tion, at  length,  to  fix  and  determine,  after  a  long  continuance 
of  an  unsettled  constitution,  the  bounds  of  their  own  freedom, 
and  the  king's  prerogative. 

12.  A  noble  stand  was  made  against  the  payment  of  this 
imposition  by  John  Hampden,  a  man  who,  on  account  of  his 
high  character  for  talents,  integrity,  and  patriotism,  possessed 
the  greatest  influence  in  parliament,  and  in  the  nation.  But, 
although  the  venal  judges  decided  the  cause  against  him,  yet 
he  obtained  the  end  for  which  he  sacrificed  his  quiet  and  his 
safety.  The  people,  believing  that  the  decision  was  unjust, 
were  roused  from  their  lethargy,  and  became  fully  sensible  of 
the  danger  to  which  their  liberties  were  exposed. 

13.  The  Duke  of  Buckingham  having  been  assassinated  by 
Felton,  an  Irish  fanatic,  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  the  most  able 
and  devoted  champion  of  the  claims  of  the  crown,  and  the 
most  formidable  enemy  of  the  liberties  of  the  people,  became 
the  chief  counsellor  of  the  king,  and  Archhishop  Laud  had 
the  principal  influence  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The  current 
of  the   public  sentiment  was  now  running  strongly  towards 


i:nglam).  209 

Purifaiiism,  in  favor  of  a  siinjjler  form  of  worsliij).  But  Laud, 
.so  far  from  countenancing  this  tendency,  had  overloaded  the 
cJiurch  with  new  ceremonies,  wliich  were  disgusting  to  the 
})cople,  and  which  he  enforced  with  the  most  intolerant  zeal. 

14.  Not  satisfied  with  attempting  to  enforce  conformity  in 
England,  the  king  undertook  to  establish  episcopacy  in  Scot- 
land also,  and  to  impose  the  use  of  the  English  liturgy  upon 
the  national  church.  This  measure  excited  a  strong  sensation 
among  all  ranks,  from  the  peer  to  the  peasant:  even  the 
women  were  not  backward  in  manifesting  opposition.  In  one 
of  the  churches  of  Edinburgh,  on  the  day  when  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  liturgy  was  first  attempted,  no  sooner  had  the  ser- 
vice begun,  than  an  old  woman,  impelled  by  sudden  indignation, 
started  up,  and  exclaiming  aloud  against  the  supposed  mass, 
threw  the  stool,  on  which  she  had  been  sitting,  at  the  preacher's 
head.  The  assembly  was  instantly  in  confusion,  nor  could  the 
minister  finish  the  service.  The  people  from  without  burst 
open  the  doors,  broke  the  windows,  and  rent  the  air  with  ex- 
clamations of  "  A  pope  !  an  antichrist  !  stone  him,  stone  him  ! " 

15.  The  prelates  were  equally  unsuccessful,  in  most  in- 
stances, throughout  Scotland,  in  enforcing  the  liturgy.  The 
Nationnl  Corc/ianl,  which  was  first  framed  at  the  Reformation, 
and  which  renounced  ej)isco|)acy  as  well  as  popery,  was  re- 
newed, and  subscribed  by  all  ranks ;  and  afterwards  a  ne^v 
bond,  of  similar  purport,  but  still  more  determined  and  hostile 
in  its  spirit,  styled  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  was 
formed  and  signed  by  many  in  England  as  well  as  in  Scotland, 
who  combined  together  for  their  mutual  defence. 

16.  After  eleven  years'  intermission,  the  king  found  it  neces- 
sary, in  1640,  to  convoke  a  rurliament ;  but  the  House  of 
Commons,  instead  of  listening  to  his  demands  for  supplies,  be- 
gan with  presenting  the  public  grievances,  under  three  heads  : 
those  of  the  broken  privileges  of  parliament,  of  illegal  taxes, 
and  of  violence  done  to  the  cause  of  religion.  Charles,  per- 
ceiving he  had  nothing  favorable  to  hope  from  their  delibera- 
tions, soon  dissolved  the  assembly.  By  another  parliament, 
which  was  not  long  afterwards  assembled,  Strajford  and  Laud 
were  sent  to  the  Tower  on  several  charges  of  endeavoring  to 
subvert  the  constitution,  and  to  introduce  arbitrary  power. 
Strafford  was  brought  to  trial  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  \\as 
condemned  and  beheaded  ;  and,  five  years  afterwarxls,  Laud 
suffered  the  same  fate. 

17.  Charles  had,  in  1629,  violated  the  privileges  of  parlia- 
ment, by  causing  nine  members  to  be  imprisoned  for  the  part 
which  they  had  taken  in  debate  ;  but  he  was  now  betrayed 
into  a  still   greater  indiscretion,  which  contributnl   much  to- 

18^* 


210  ENGLAND 

wards  kindling  tho  flame  of  civil  war.  This  was  the  impeach- 
meat  of  Lord  KimhoUon,  and  five  distinguished  commoners, 
Pyin,  Hampden,  Hollis,  Hazkrig,  and  Strode  ;  and  his  going 
himself  to  the  House  to  seize  them,  leaving  200  armed  men  at 
the  door.  Having  entered  the  House,  he  ordered  the  speaker, 
Lcnt.hal,  to  ])oint  them  out.  "  Sir,"  answered  the  speaker, 
falling  on  his  knees,  "  1  have  neither  eyes  to  see,  nor  tongue 
to  speak  in  this  place,  but  as  the  Plouse  is  pleased  to  direct  me, 
whose  servant  I  am ;  and  I  humbly  ask  pardon  that  I  cannot 
give  any  other  answer  to  what  your  majesty  is  pleased  to  de- 
mand of  me." 

18.  The  king  withdrew  without  effecting  his  object,  amidst 
low  but  distinct  murmurs  of  "  Privilege,  privilege."  This  ill- 
advised  and  abortive  attempt,  which  was  condemned  both  by 
his  friends  and  enemies,  completed  the  degradation  of  the  un- 
fortunate monarch.  He  afterwards  apologized  to  parliament 
for  this  conduct,  but  the  day  of  reconciliation  was  past ;  he 
had  lost  the  confidence  of  that  body,  and  they  were  now  pre- 
pared not  only  to  confine  his  power  within  legal  bounds,  but  to 
strip  him  of  his  constitutional  authority. 

19.  Both  parties  resolved  to  stake  the  issue  of  the  contest 
on  the  sword;  and  the  standard  of  civil  war  was  now  (1642) 
erected.  The  cause  of  the  king  was  supported  by  three  fourths 
of  the  nobility  and  superior  gentry,  by  the  bishops  and  advo- 
cates of  episcopacy,  and  by  the  Catholics ;  that  of  the  parlia- 
ment by  the  yeomanry  of  the  country,  the  merchants  and 
tradesmen  in  the  towns,  —  by  the  Puritans,  or  opponents  of  epis- 
copacy, comprising  the  Presbyterians,  Independents,  and  other 
dissenters.  The  supporters  of  the  king  were  styled  Cavaliers  ; 
those  of  the  parliament.  Roundheads.,  —  an  appellation  given  to 
them  by  their  adversaries,  because  many  of  them  cropped 
their  hair  short. 

20.  A  religious  spirit,  unfortunately  tinctured  with  fanat- 
icism, extravagance,  and  party  feeling,  was  at  this  period 
widely  diffused  throughout  Great  Britain,  and  it  formed  a 
prominent  characteristic  of  most  of  the  leaders  in  parliament, 
and  also  of  those  who  took  up  arms  in  defence  of  their  liber- 
ties. The  charge  of  license  and  excess  fell  chiefly  on  the 
royalists,  a  great  part  of  whom  were  men  of  pleasure,  disposed 
to  deride  the  sanctity  and  austere  morality  of  their  opponents. 
"  All  the  sober  men  that  I  was  acquainted  with,  who  were 
against  the  parliament,"  says  the  celebrated  Richard  Baxter, 
"  used  to  say,  '  The  king  had  the  better  cause,  but  the  parlia- 
ment had  the  better  men.'  " 

21.  England  had  been,  comparatively,  but  little  engaged  in 
war  since  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.,  and  it  had  but  few 


ENGLAND.  211 

men  of  military  experience.  The  chief  commanders  in  the 
royal  arm}',  besides  the  king^  were  the  Earl  of  Lindsey, 
Prince  Rupert,  and  Sir  Jacob  Astley ;  and,  in  the  parliamen- 
tary arm}'',  the  Earl  of  Essex  had  the  chief  command  at  first, 
then  Lord  FuirfcLV,  and  afterwards  Oliver  Cromwell.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  contest,  each  side  lost  one  of  their  greatest 
and  best  men  ;  Hampden  on  the  part  of  the  parliament,  and 
Lord  Falkland  on  that  of  the  king.  In  the  battles  of  Edge- 
hill  (1()4"2),  and  Ncwlmry  (1643),  the  royalists  had  the  advan- 
tage ;  but  in  those  of  Marston  Moor  ( 16 13),  and  Nascby  ( 1645), 
they  were  entirely  defeated. 

22.  After  the  war  had  raged  nearly  five  years,  the  king  fell 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  who  held  him  for  some  time  a 
prisoner.  At  length,  a  minority  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
after  having  expelled  their  colleagues,  being  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  parliamentary  army,  instituted  a  high  court  of 
justice,  composed  of  133  members,  for  trying  him  on  a  charge 
of  treason.  Of  this  court,  Bradshaw  was  appointed  president. 
The  king,  having  been  arraigned  before  this  tribunal,  received 
the  sentence,  that  "  the  court,  being  satisfied  that  Charles  Stu- 
art is  guilty  of  the  crimes  of  which  he  has  been  charged,  do 
adjudge  him,  as  a  tyrant,  traitor,  murderer,  and  public  enemy 
to  the  good  people  of  the  nation,  to  be  put  to  death,  by  sever- 
ing his  head  from  his  body." 

23.  Charles  was  now  no  longer  the  man  he  had  been  before 
the  civil  war.  Aflliction  had  chastened  his  mind  ;  he  had 
sought  and  found  strength  and  relief  in  the  consolations  of  re- 
ligion ;  and  his  conduct  during  his  trial  exalted  his  charactet, 
even  in  the  estimation  of  his  enemies.  He  denied  the  authority 
of  the  court,  but  declared  that  he  forgave  those  who  were  the 
cause  of  his  death,  and  submitted  to  his  fate  with  fortitude  and 
composure.  Having  laid  his  head  on  the  block,  one  of  the 
masked  executioners  severed  it  from  his  body  at  a  blow ;  the 
other,  holding  it  up,  exclaiined,  "  Behold  the  head  of  a  traitor  !  " 
while  the  sobs  and  lamentations  ©f  the  spectators  wen;  mingled 
with  the  acclamations  of  the  soldiery  (1649). 

24.  Such  was  the  end  of  Charles  I.,  —  an  awful  lesson  1 1  kings 
to  watch  the  growth  of  public  opinion,  and  to  moderate  their 
])retensions  in  conformity  with  the  reasonable  desires  of  their 
subjects.  His  execution,  however,  was  contrary  to  the  gereral 
feelings  of  the  nation,  but  was  the  deed  of  comparatively  a 
few  men,  actuated  by  ambition  or  the  madness  of  the  times. 
Even  of  the  commissioners  appointed  to  sit  in  judgment  on 
him,  only  about  half  could  be  induced  to  attend  his  trial.  But 
the  manner  of  his  death  has  tended  to  exalt  his  posthumous 
reputation  ;  for,whiIc  it  has  moderated  the  reproaches  of  hi« 


212  ENGLAND. 

adversaries,  it  has  enhanced  tlie  encomiums  of  his  advocates, 
who  have  styled  him  "  the  royal  martyr,"  and,  in  sympathy 
for  his  sufferings  and  resentment  against  the  regicides,  have 
been  disposed  to  overlook  his  misdeeds  which  brought  him  to 
the  scaffold. 

25.  It  was  the  misfortune  of  Charles  to  inherit  despotic  prin- 
ciples from  his  ancestors,  to  be  educated  in  a  servile  and  profli- 
gate court,  and  to  be  surrounded  by  wretched  counsellors.  He 
was  one  of  the  last  men  to  learn  the  important  lesson,  whicli 
princes  in  all  ages  have  been  slow  to  learn,  that  the  influence 
of  authority  must  ultimately  bend  to  the  influence  of  opinion. 
But  his  greatest  defect,  as  well  as  the  principal  cause  of  his 
ruin,  was  the  system  of  duplicity  and  insincerity  upon  which 
he  acted  in  his  public  character.  Such  was  his  want  of  fidelity 
in  his  engagements,  that  the  parliament  could  never  confide  in 
his  promises. 

26.  But,  weak  and  reprehensible  as  he  was  as  a  king,  he  was 
by  no  means  destitute  of  abilities.  He  was  possessed  of  con- 
siderable learning  and  good  talents  as  a  speaker  and  writer, 
and,  in  his  private  character,  was  exemplary.  In  his  manners 
he  is  represented  as  cold,  stiff,  and  formal,  preserving  a  state 
and  reserve,  which  were  calculated  to  alienate  those  who  ap- 
proached him.  With  respect  to  religion,  he  was,  says  Bishop 
Burnet,  "  much  inclined  to  a  middle  way  between  Protestants 
and  Papists." 

27.  The  proceedings  of  Charles  were  at  direct  variance 
with  every  principle  of  civil  and  religious  liberty ;  and,  had 
they  been  acquiesced  in  on  the  part  of  the  people,  England 
might  now  have  been  a  despotism.  Mr.  Hume,  the  great 
apologist  for  the  Stuart  family,  acknowledges  the  services  of 
the  Puritans,  "  by  whom  alone,"  according  to  him,  "  the  pre- 
cious spark  of  liberty  had  been  kindled  and  was  preserved, 
and  to  whom  the  English  owe  the  whole  freedom  of  their  con- 
stitution." 

28.  'I  ne  intentions  of  those  who  first  resisted  the  despotic 
and  intolerant  measures  of  the  king  and  his  court  were  doubt- 
less u]- right  and  patriotic  ;  and  their  exertions  to  secure  the 
rights  of  the  nation,  which  had  been  wantonly  violated,  entitle 
them  to  the  gratitude  of  posterity.  Yet  it  must  be  acknowl- 
edged, that  those  who  opposed  the  intolerance  of  the  king  and 
of  Laud  had  themselves  no  consistent  principles  of  religions 
liberty.  In  the  progress  of  the  contest,  party  spirit  and  fanat- 
icism were  called  into  powerful  operation,  and  the  leaders  of 
the  popular  party,  in  many  cases,  acted  on  the  principle  that 
the  end  sanctifies  the  means,  and  appeared  to  think  themselvca 
RbAolved  from  all  obligations  of   lienor  and   honesty.     Kijiht 


ENGLAND.  213 

and  justico  were  outraged  by  those  who  professed  to  liave 
drawn  the  sword  in  their  defence.  But  such  inconsistency  i3 
characteristic  of  revohitions. 

29.  The  deatli  of  the  king  was  soon  followed  by  the  aboU- 
tion  both  of  tlie  monarchy  and  the  House  of  Lords  by  the 
Commons ;  and  a  republican  government  was  estabhslied.  It 
was  pubHcly  proclaimed,  that  the  supreme  authority  of  the  na- 
tion resided  in  the  representatives  of  the  people  ;  and  that  it 
should  be  accounted  treason  to  give  any  person  the  title  of 
king  without  the  authority  of  parliament. 

30.  After  the  execution  of  Laud,  Episcopacy  had  been 
abolished,  and  Prcshyterianism  substituted  in  its  stead.  But 
the  Presbyterian  interest  soon  began  to  decline,  and  the  hide- 
pendents  gained  the  ascendency  ;  and  the  power  which  the 
parliament  had  wrested  from  the  king  was  at  length,  by  the 
management  of  CromweU,  transferred  to  the  army.  Before 
the  trial  of  Charles,  measures  had  been  taken  to  exclude  the 
Presbyterians  from  parliament ;  and  that  part  of  the  House 
which  remamed,  distinguished  by  the  ridiculous  name  of  the 
Ru7np,  was  composed  of  Independents,  under  the  influence  of 
Cromwell.  In  this  manner  the  Presbyterians,  who  had  over- 
turned the  church  and  the  throne,  fell  victims  to  the  military 
power  which  they  liad  used  as  the  instrument  for  accomplishing 
their  designs. 

3L  The  parliament  of  Scotland  took  no  part  in  the  trial  of 
the  king,  and  after  his  death  they  proclaimed  Charles  II.  their 
sovereign,  on  condition  of  his  signing  the  Covenant.  Crom- 
well, at  the  head  of  16,000  men,  marched  into  Scotland,  and 
defeated  (1650)  the  royalist  Covenanters  in  the  battle  of  Dun- 
bar. The  royal  army,  retreating  into  England,  was  pursued 
by  Cromwell,  and,  in  the  desperate  battle  of  Worcester  (1651), 
almost  the  whole  of  the  troops  were  killed  or  taken  prisoners ; 
and  the  victorious  commander  returned  in  triumph  to  London. 

32.  Young  Charles  escaped  with  difliculty.  He  assumed 
the  disguise  of  a  peasant,  journeying  in  the  least  frequented 
roads,  travelling  only  in  the  night,  and  passing  the  day  in  ob- 
scure cottages,  where  he  was  unknown,  and  where  his  food 
was  generally  a  little  coarse  bread  and  milk.  On  one  occa- 
sion, he  sought  safety  by  concealing  himself,  for  a  day,  in  the 
top  of  a  large  oak.  In  that  precarious  situation,  he  saw  and 
heard  his  pursuers,  as  they  passed  by,  talking  of  him,  and  ex- 
pressing a  wish  that  they  might  discover  the  place  of  his  con- 
cealment. After  two  months  of  romantic  adventure,  he  found 
on  opportunity  of  escajiing  to  France. 

33.  The  republican  parliament  passed  (1651)  the  famous 


214  ENGLAND. 

Navigation  Act,  whicli,  by  prohibiting  the  importation  of  all 
foreign  merchandise,  except  in  English  bottoms,  or  in  those  of 
the  country  producing  the  commodities,  tended  greatly  to  pro- 
mote the  naval  superiority  of  Great  Britain.  This  act,  the  ob- 
ject of  which  was  to  wrest  the  carrying-trade  of  Europe  from 
the  Dutch,  was  the  cause  of  a  war  between  England  and  Hol- 
land, which  terminated  in  favor  of  the  foi-mcr,  and  in  wliicli 
the  celebrated  Admiral  Blake  distinguished  himself,  and  had  for 
his  antagonists  the  great  Dutch  maritime  chiefs.  Van  Tramp 
and  De  Ruyter. 

34.  The  parliament,  which  had  been  in  session  twelve  years, 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Long  Farliamcnt,  had  lost  the 
confidence  of  the  people.  It  had  been  subservient  to  the  views 
of  Cromwell ;  but,  having  at  length  become  jealous  of  him,  it 
formed  the  design  of  reducing  the  army,  intending,  by  that 
means,  to  diminish  his  power.  Cromwell,  perceiving  their  ob- 
ject, and  being  secure  of  the  attachment  of  the  army,  resolved 
on  seizing  the  sovereign  power.  While  sitting  in  a  council  of 
officers,  on  being  informed  of  an  unfavorable  reply  of  parlia- 
ment to  a  petition  which  they  had  presented,  he  rose  up  on  a 
sudden,  with  an  appearance  of  fury,  and,  turning  to  Major- 
General  Vernon,  cried  out,  that  he  was  compelled  to  do  a  thing 
which  made  the  very  hairs  of  his  head  stand  on  end. 

35.  Taking  with  him  300  soldiers  to  the  door,  he  speedily 
entered  the  house  with  marks  of  violent  indignation  in  his 
countenance ;  and,  after  listening  awhile  to  the  debates,  he 
started  up,  and  began  to  load  the  parliament  with  reproaches. 
Then,  stamping  upon  the  floor,  he  gave  a  signal  for  his  soldiers 
to  enter ;  and,  addressing  himself  to  the  members,  "  For 
shame  ! "  said  he  ;  "  get  you  gone ;  give  place  to  honcster 
men !  I  tell  you,  you  are  no  longer  a  parliament ;  the  Lord 
has  done  with  you  !  "  Having  turned  out  all  the  members,  he 
ordered  the  doors  to  be  locked. 

36.  In  this  manner  Cromwell  seized  the  reins  ot  govern- 
ment ;  but  he  was  willing  to  give  his  subjects  a  parliament, 
not,  indeed,  elected  in  the  usual  form,  but  modelled  on  prin- 
ciples entirely  new.  The  ministers  took  the  sense  of  the 
"  Congregational  churches "  in  the  several  counties,  and  re- 
turns were  made  containing  the  names  of  such  persons  as 
were  deemed  qualified  for  this  high  trust.  Out  of  these,  the 
council,  in  the  presence  of  Cromwell,  selected  163  represent- 
atives, to  each  of  whom  a  writ  of  summons  was  sent,  requiring 
his  attendance  ;  and,  on  the  appointed  day,  120  of  them  pre- 
sented themselves  in  the  council-chamber  at  WhiteJiall.  This 
body,  composed  of  men  who  were  deeply  imbued  with  the 
fanaticism  of  the  times,  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Little 


ENGLAND.  215 

rarliament,  and  is  also  often  called  Barehone^s  Parliament^ 
from  a  leadinj^  member,  a  leather-dresser,  whose  name,  given 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  age,  was  Praise-God  Barebone. 

o7.  The  Little  Parliament  assembled  on  the  4th  of  July, 
1658,  and  was  dissolved  in  the  following  December.  At  the 
time  of  its  dissolution,  a  new  constitution  was  published,  and 
t'rcMinvell  assumed  the  title  and  oflicc  of  Protector^  having 
now  obtained  the  great  object  of  his  ambition,  the  station  and 
authority,  though  not  the  title,  of  king.  He  was  assisted  by  a 
council  of  21  members,  and,  instead  of  the  title  of  majesty^  he 
received  that  of  highness.  He  afterwards  aspired  to  the  title 
of  king,  which  was  at  length  tendered  to  him,  yet  under  such 
circumstances  of  opposition  and  danger,  that  he  thought  proper 
to  decline  it. 

'38.  The  government  which  he  had  usurped  lie  administered 
with  unrivalled  energy  and  ability,  and  he  was  the  most  able 
and  powerful  potentate  of  his  time  in  Europe.  Abroad,  his 
fleets  and  armies  were  victorious,  and  the  island  of  Javiaica 
and  the  strong  town  ol'  Dunkirk  were  taken  from  the  Spaniards  : 
at  home,  he  defeated  and  punished  the  conspiracies  formed 
against  him  ;  granted  religious  toleration  ;  caused  justice  to  be 
ably  and  impartially  administered  by  upright  and  learned 
judges ;  made  himself  to  be  respected  and  dreaded  by  the 
neighboring  nations,  and  his  friendship  to  be  sought  by  every 
foreign  power ;  and  the  splendor  of  his  character  and  exploits 
rendered  the  short  period  of  the  protectorate  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  in  English  history ;  nor  were  the  rights  of  England, 
under  the  reign  of  any  other  sovereign,  more  respected  abroad. 
But,  notwithstanding  all  his  efforts,  his  enemies  were  numerous 
among  botli  the  royalists  and  republicans :  he  passed  the  last 
part  of  his  life  in  constant  fear  of  assassination  ;  wore  armor 
under  his  clothes  ;  kept  pistols  in  his  pocket;  and  never  slept 
more  than  three  nights  in  the  same  chamber.  At  last,  after 
having  usurped  the  government  9  years,  he  died  of  a  tertian 
ague  (1658),  in  the  60lh  year  of  his  age. 

39.  Cromwell  was  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  extraordi- 
nary men  that  England  has  produced  ;  and,  till  the  rise  of 
Bonaparte,  his  name  was  without  a  parallel  in  modern  Europe. 
Men  were  accustomed  to  look  with  a  feeling  of  awe  upon  the 
individual  who,  without  the  aid  of  birth,  wealth,  or  connec- 
tions, was  able,  by  the  force  of  his  talents,  to  seize  the  govern- 
ment of  three  powerful  kingdoms,  and  impose  the  yoke  of  ser- 
vitude upon  the  necks  of  the  very  men  who  had  fought  in  his 
company  to  emancipate  themselves  from  the  arbitrary  sway 
of  their  hereditary  sovereign. 

40.  He  owed  his  elevation  to  his  influence  with  the  army. 


216  ENGLAND. 

and  the  character  of  that  body  and  that  of  their  leader  were, 
in  a  great  measure,  mutually  formed  by  each  other.  The 
officers  and  soldiers  made  high  professions  of  religion ;  relig- 
ious exercises  were  of  as  frequent  occurrence  as  those  of 
military  duty  ;  the  generals  opened  their  proceedings  in  coun- 
cil by  prayer ;  and  among  them  Cromwell  was  preeminent  ni 
spiritual  gifts,  and  was  regarded  by  them  as  the  favorite  of 
Heaven.  While  eagerly  toiling  up  the  ascent  to  greatness,  he 
labored  to  make  it  appear  that  he  was  involuntarily  borne  for- 
ward by  a  resistless  force,  by  the  wishes  of  the  army,  by  the 
necessities  of  the  state,  and  by  the  will  of  Providence  ;  and,  in 
assuming  authority,  he  yielded,  with  feigned  reluctance,  to  the 
advice  which  he  had  himself  suggested. 

•41.  The  name  of  Cromwell  has  been  subjected  to  the  almost 
universal  charge  of  unbounded  ambition  and  deep  hypocrisy  ; 
and  there  is  scarcely  to  be  met  with,  in  the  annals  of  the 
world,  another  man  alike  conspicuous,  and  possessed  of  equal 
merit  in  his  public  and  private  character,  who  has  met  less 
favor  from  history.  This  is,  indeed,  a  natural  result,  as  his 
course  was  alike  hostile  to  legitimate  monarchy  and  re- 
publican liberty,  and  rendered  him  equally  odious  to  the  two 
leading  parties  of  the  times,  the  advocates  of  the  privileges  of 
the  people,  and  those  of  the  prerogative  of  the  king ;  and  it 
may  also  be  remarked,  that,  by  his  high  professions  of  religion, 
he  made  himself  liable  to  the  severest  judgment.  His  deser- 
tion from  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  his  baseness  in  subverting 
the  freedom  of  his  country,  proved  fatal,  at  once,  to  his  happi- 
ness and  his  fame. 

42.  Cromwell,  in  private  life,  in  the  several  relations  of  a 
husband,  a  father,  a  neighbor,  and  a  friend,  was  exemplary. 
From  his  early  days  to  the  close  of  his  career,  religion,  or  re- 
ligious enthusiasm,  formed  a  distinguished  trait  in  his  charac- 
ter ;  and  it  frequently  manifested  itself  in  the  senate  and  in  the 
field,  and  also  in  his  domestic  retirement.  Some  writers  have 
maintained  that  he  was  a  dissembler  in  religion  as  well  as  in 
politics ;  and  that,  for  interested  purposes,  he  condescended  to 
act  the  part  of  a  character  which  he  despised.  "  But  this  sup- 
position," as  Dr.  Lingard  justly  observes,  "  is  contradicted  by 
the  uniform  tenor  of  his  life." 

43.  Richard  Cromwell.,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  was 
proclaimed  protector  ;  but  the  contrast  between  the  father  and 
son  was  wonderful.  Richard  was  neither  a  statesman  nor  a 
soldier,  had  no  experience  in  public  business,  and  possessed 
feeble  talents,  and  little  ambition ;  and,  after  a  few  months,  he 
resigned  the  office,  and  retired  to  private  life.     A  state  of 


ENGLAND.  217 

anarchy  succeeded,  when  Geiicral  Monk  (afterwards  Duke  of 
Albemarle),  the  military  commander  in  Scotland,  marched  his 
army  into  England,  and  crushed  the  contending  factions.  A 
parliament  was  assembled,  and  on  the  29th  of  May,  1660, 
Chnrlcs  II.,  now  30  years  of  age,  was  restored  to  the  throne 
of  his  father. 

44.  The  nation,  indiscreetly  trusting  to  the  general  profes- 
sions of  Charles  II.,  suffered  him  to  assinne  the  crown  with- 
out imposing  on  him  any  conditions  ;  and  his  reign,  and'  that 
of  James  IL,  exhibit  a  disgusting  repetition  of  struggles,  similar 
to  those  which  had  occurred  under  the  two  first  princes  of  the 
house  of  Stuart.  The  first  impressions  with  regard  to  the  new 
king  were  favorable  ;  his  manners  were  easy  and  familiar,  but 
his  habits  were  indolent ;  and  experience,  soon  proved  his 
character  to  be  profligate  and  worthless. 

45.  The  change  in  the  public  sentiment,  observable  at  this 
period,  is  not  a  little  remarkable.  The  same  people,  who,  but 
a  few  years  before,  were  so  jealous  of  liberty,  and  exclaimed 
so  loudly  against  monarchical  government,  arc  now  exhibited 
us  soliciting,  with  eagerness,  the  shackles  of  arbitrary  power. 
A  number  of  the  regicides  were  condemned  and  executed, 
and  the  bodies  of  Cromwell,  Bradshaw,  and  Ircton,  were  dug 
up  from  their  graves,  and  hanged  upon  the  gallows,  to  gratify 
the  vindictive  spirit  of  the  king  and  the  cavaliers.  High- 
church  or  Tory  principles,  and  the  slavish  doctrines  of  passive 
obedience  and  non-resistance,  now  came  in  vogue.  An  act 
of  uniformity  in  religion  was  passed  (1662),  by  which  about 
2,000  non-conforming  ministers  were  deprived  of  their  livings; 
and  another  attempt  was  made  to  establish  episcopacy"  in 
Scotland. 

46.  The  prodigality  of  Charles  kept  him  always  in  want, 
Dunkirk,  which  had  been  acquired  by  Cromwell,  he  sold  to  the 
French  for  =£400,000,  which  ho  soon  squandered  upon  his 
pleasures.  He  entered  into  hostilities  with  the  Dutch,  which 
were  carried  on,  for  some  time,  with  spirit.  While  this  war 
was  raging,  London  was  visited  (1665)  by  a  tremendous 
plaiTue,  which  carried  off  about  90,000  inhabitants ;  and  we,s 
followed,  the  next  year,  by  a  fire,  by  which  13,200  houses, 
comprising  about  two  thirds  of  the  metropolis,  were  reduced 
to  ashes. 

47.  In  consequence  of  the  unsuccessful  issue  of  the  war 
(which  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Breda,  1667),  and  of 
the  sale  of  Dtmkvrk,  the  government  became  unpopular,  and 
the  celebrated  Ijord  Clarendon,  on  whom  the  odium  wa-s 
chiefly  cast,  was  banished^  and  passed  the  remainder  of  hia 

19 


218  ENGLAND. 

life  in  France.  After  the  fall  of  Clarendon,  the  government 
became  more  unprincipled  ;  and  the  five  ministers,  by  whom 
it  was  conducted,  have  been  stigmatized  by  the  term  oi  Cabal ^ 
so  called  from  the  initial  letters  of  their  names. 

48.  The  Duke,  of  York  (afterwards  James  II.),  who  had 
now  the  chief  influence  at  court,  was  an  avowed  CalhoHc : 
Charles,  so  far  as  he  had  any  sense  of  religion,  was  a  con- 
cealed one,  and  had  the  baseness  to  receive  from  Louis  XIV. 
of  France  a  pension  of  c£'200,000  a  year,  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  the  Catholic  religion  and  despotic  power  in  Eng- 
land. A  general  consternation  for  the  safety  of  the  Protestant 
religion  and  of  public  liberty  prevailed ;  and  the  latter  part  of 
Charles's  reign  exhibits  an  uninterrupted  series  of  attacks  upon 
the  lives,  liberty,  and  property  of  his  subjects,  and  a  disgust- 
ing scene  of  party  intrigues,  and  of  plots  and  conspiracies ; 
yet  it  was  at  this  period  that  parliament  passed  the  Habeas 
Corpus  act,  a  most  important  security  to  the  subject  against 
personal  oppression. 

49.  A  pretended  Popish  Plot,  disclosed  by  the  infamous 
Titus  Oatcs,  occasioned  an  unjust  execution  of  Lord  Stafford.^ 
i'nd  some  other  Catholics.  Another  pretended  conspiracy,  in 
favor  of  reform,  was  called  the  Rye-House  Plot,  in  which 
those  eminent  patriots,  Lord  Russell  and  Algernon  Sydney, 
were  accused  of  being  concerned,  and,  on  testimony  supposed 
to  be  perjured,  were  condemned  and  beheaded. 

50.  The  character  of  the  court,  as  well  as  that  of  the  king, 
was  notorious  for  its  profligacy ;  and  it  had  a  most  unhappy 
influence  upon  the  nation.  A  general  dissoluteness  of  manners 
characterized  the  reign.  All  appearance  of  devotion,  and  all 
regularity  of  morals,  were  regarded  as  puritanical,  and  ex- 
ploded as  unfashionable.  Charles  11.  was  a  man  of  wit  and 
good-humor,  and  possessed  such  talents  as  enabled  him  to 
shine  among  his  gay  and  profligate  companions ;  but  he  had 
no  qualities,  as  a  inan  or  a  king,  that  entitle  him  to  the  respect 
or  gratitude  of  posterity. 

51.  James  IL,  who  succeeded  (1685)  his  brother  Charles, 
was  inferior  to  him  in  talents,  but  much  more  devoted  to  busi- 
ness :  like  his  predecessors  of  the  Stuart  family,  he  was  arbi- 
trary and  impolitic  ;  and  his  short  and  inglorious  reign  was 
wholly  employed  in  attempts  to  establish  the  Catholic  religion 
und  despotic  power.  On  assuming  the  government,  he  ex- 
pressed his  contempt  for  the  authority  of  parliament,  and  his 
determination  to  exercise  an  unlimited  despotism.  He  made 
Romish  priests  and  Jesuits  his  chief  counsellors ;  and  though 
the  Catholics,  at  this  time,  composed  but  a  very  small  propor- 


i:.N(iI.AND  219 

tion  of  the  people  of  Englaiul,  yel  he  undertook,  the  desperate 
attempt  to  set  aside  the  Protestant  rehgion,  and,  instead  of  it, 
to  establish  the  Roman  Catliolic  faith. 

52.  The  Duke  of  Monmouth,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II., 
who,  during  the  preceding  reign,  had  defeated  the  Scottish 
Covenanters  at  Bolhwell  Bridge,  having  now  excited  a  rebel- 
lion, with  a  view  to  seize  the  crown,  was  defeated,  taken  pris- 
oner, and  beheaded.  The  most  inhuman  rigor  was  exercised 
against  those  who  favored  him.  The  atrocious  chief  justice, 
Jeffreys,  the  most  noted  as  an  unscrupulous  and  profligate 
judge  in  English  history,  exercised  the  most  unrelenting 
cruelty.  He  gloried  in  his  barbarity,  and  boasted  that  he 
liad  hanged  more  men  than  any  other  judge  since  the  time  of 
William  the  Conqueror ;  and  his  bloody  career  was  styled  by 
.fames,  with  unfeeling  jocularity,  "Jeffreys'  campaign." 

53.  The  cfTorts  of  James,  in  favor  of  the  Catholic  religion, 
were,  for  a  considerable  time,  attended  with  success.  But 
having  caused  sevoi  bishops  to  bo  committed  to  the  Tower 
for  refusing  to  read  a  declaration  to  suspend  the  laws  against 
popery,  the  passive  spirit  of  the  nation,  disappeared,  and  a 
general  indignation  was  roused.  William,  Prince  of  Orange, 
who  had  married  Mary,  the  eldest  daughter  of  James,  was  in- 
vited over,  and  landed  at  Torlay,  with  an  army,  in  order  to 
assume  the  government. 

54.  The  principal  nobility  and  officers  soon  joined  his"  stand- 
ard, and  James,  being  deserted  by  the  people,  and  even  by  his 
own  children,  escaped  to  France,  where  he  passed  the  remain- 
der of  his  life.  A  Convention-Parliament  declared  the  king's 
flight  an  abdication,  and  settled  the  crown  upon  William  III. 
and  Mary.  This  event  is  styled  by  British  writers  the  glorious 
revolution  of  1688. 

55.  The  British  constitution  now  became,  in  many  impor- 
tant points,  fixed  and  determined.  The  Protestant  succession 
was  secured  ;  religious  toleration  granted  ;  and  Presbytcrianism 
reestablished  in  Scotland.  A  declaration  was  made,  fixing  the 
rights  of  the  subject,  and  the  prerogative  of  the  king.  Some 
of  the  most  important  articles  are  the  following: — 1.  The 
king  cannot  suspend  the  laws  or  their  execution.  2.  He  can- 
not levy  money  without  the  consent  of  parliament.  3.  The 
subjects  have  a  right  to  petition  the  crown.  4.  A  standing 
army  cannot  be  kept  in  time  of  peace  but  with  the  consent  of 
parliament.  5.  Elections  and  parliamentary  debates  must  be 
free,  and  parliaments  must  be  frequently  assembled. 

56.  Archbishop  Sancroft,  seven  other  bishops,  and  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  clergy,  who  held  the  doctrines  of  pas' 


220     .  ENGLAND.     - 

sive  obedience  and  the  divine  right  of  kings  and  bishops,  look- 
ing upon  James  as  still  their  lawful  king,  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  William,  and  were  deprived  of  their  sta- 
tions. From  this  circumstance  they  were  styled  Non-jurors, 
High- Church ine7i,  and  Jacohiles. 

57.  Ireland  still  adhered  to  James,  and  the  parliament  of 
lliat  country  declared  William  an  usurper.  Being  assisted  by 
Louis  XIV.  of  France,  James  landed  with  some  French  forces 
in  Ireland,  where  he  was  joined  by  a  large  army ;  but  he  was 
defeated  by  William  at  the  river  Boyne,  and  the  country  sub- 
mitted to  the  new  king.  A  large  fleet,  which  Louis  XIV.  had 
prepared  in  favor  of  James,  was  destroyed  by  Admiral  Rtis- 
srll,  off  Cape  la  Hogue ;  and  by  the  peace  of  Rysioick,  which 
followed  (1697),  the  title  of  William  to  the  crown  was  ac- 
knowledged. 

58.  William  was  a  man  of  feeble  constitution,  but  of  dis- 
tinguished talents,  especially  in  war,  to  which  his  taste  strongly 
inclined  him  ;  and  he  was  esteemed  one  of  the  greatest  com- 
manders of  his  age.  He  was  rather  fitted  to  command  respect 
than  affection,  as  he  excelled  more  in  the  severer,  than  in  the 
milder,  virtues,  being  wholly  devoted  to  business,  and  his  man- 
ners being  cold,  gi-ave,  and  reserved:  he  was  a  firm  friend  to 
civil  and  religious  liberty ;  but  he  was  less  popular  with  his 
subjects  than  some  other  sovereigns  of  far  less  merit.  Mary., 
his  queen,  and  partner  of  the  throne,  who  died  seven  years  be- 
fore him,  was  a  woman  distinguished  for  her  virtues. 

59.  On  the  death  of  William,  the  crown  devolved  upon 
Anne  (1702),  the  second  daughter  of  James  II.,  who  was  mar- 
ried to  George,  Prince  of  Denmark.  She  was  respected  for 
her  virtues,  and  she  has  been  honored  by  the  appellation  of 
"Good  Queen  Anne";  though,  according  to  Lord  Mahon, 
"  she  was  a  very  weak  woman,  full  of  prejudices,  fond  of  flat- 
tery,—  always  blindly  guided  by  some  female  favorite."  Her 
reign  was  distinguished  not  only  for  military  achievements,  but 
also  for  eminent  attainments  in  philosophy  and  literature  ;  and 
is  sometimes  styled  the  Augustan  age  of  England. 

60.  In  the  first  year  of  this  reign.  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
and  Holland,  in  alliance  with  each  other,  declared  war  against 
France.  The  Duke  of  Marlborough,  one  of  the  greatest  com- 
manders of  modern  times,  was  appointed  generalissimo  of  the 
allied  army ;  and  the  imperial  general  was  the  celebrated 
Prince  Eugene.  In  this  great  contest,  the  Allies  had  greatly 
the  advantage,  effectually  checked  the  ambition  and  encroach- 
ments of  Louis  XIV.,  and  gained  the  splendid  victories  of 
Blenheim  (1704),  Ramillies{YlQQ),  Oudenarde  (1708),  and 


ENGLAND.  221 

Malplaquet  (1709).     The  war  was  terminated  by  the  peace 
of  Utrecht,  in  1713. 

61.  An  important  event  of  this  reign  was  the  constitkiional 
union  between  England  and  ScotJand  (1706),  which  put  a 
period  to  the  contests  which  had  harassed  both  countries,  and 
included  them  under  one  common  title  of  Great  Britain. 

62.  The  party  names  of  Whigs  and  Tories,  which  are  still 
used  to  designate  parties  in  England,  first  became  common  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  The  Whigs  were  advocates  for  the 
rights  of  the  people ;  the  Tories  favored  those  of  the  crown. 
The  accession  of  William  and  Mary  was  advocated  chiefly  by 
the  Whigs.  During  the  reign  of  Anne,  parties  ran  high  ;  the 
nation  was  thrown  into  a  ferment  by  the  preaching  of  Dr. 
Sacheverell,  who  inculcated  the  Tory  principle  of  passive  obe- 
dience ;  and,  towards  the  close  of  the  reign,  the  Tories  sup- 
planted the  Whigs  in  the  queen's  favoi',  and  came  into  power 


SECTION  IX. 

House  of  Brunswick  :  —  George  I. ;    George  II. ;    George 
III. ;  George  IV. ;   WiUiam  IV.  ;   Victoria. 

1.  On  the  death  of  Queen  Anne  (1714),  George  J.,  Elector 
of  Hanover,  succeeded  to  the  crown,  in  the  55th  year  of  his 
age.  Before  he' ascended  the  throne,  he  had  acquired  some 
reputation  as  a  politician  and  a  general.  He  was  plain  in  his 
manners,  and  not  of  elevated  character  or  ta-ste  ;  but  he  was  a 
man  of  great  application  to  business  ;  and  his  reign  was  pacific 
and  prosperous.  Some  faults  in  his  government  were  attributed 
to  a  venal  ministry ;  and  he  was  esteemed,  to  the  end  of  his 
life,  in  his  views  and  conduct,  much  more  the  Elector  of  Han- 
over than  the  King  of  England. 

2.  The  two  parties  which  had  long  divided  the  kingdom 
now,  for  a  time,  changed  their  titles,  the  Whigs  being  styled 
Hanoverians.,  and  the  Tories  Jacobites.  The  former,  being 
strenuous  advocates  for  the  accession  of  George,  received  in 
return  from  him  favor  and  support,  and  were  restored  to 
power.  This  circumstance  alienated  and  enraged  the  Tories 
to  such  a  degree,  that  many  of  them  took  part  with  the  Pre- 
tender., son  of  James  II.,  who  was  proclaimed  king  in  Scot- 
land, and  made  an  efTort  to  obtain  the  crown;  but  the  rebellion 
was  suppressed,  and  the  leaders  executed. 

3.  A  pacific  reign,  like  that  of  George  I.,  furnishes  few 
events  of  inqjortance  in  history.     Op,e,  however,  of  disastrous 

19* 


222  ENGLAND. 

consequences,  occurred,  called  the  South  Sea  Scheme,  a  basw 
imposture,  by  which  it  was  proposed  to  diminish  the  burden  of 
the  national  debt  by  lowering  the  interest.  It  gave  a  great 
shock  to  public  credit,  and  involved  thousands  in  ruin. 

4.  George  II.,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  the  ^Ith  year  of 
his  age,  was  an  able  general,  of  great  personal  courage,  but 
was  too  fond  of  war,  and  delighted  in  military  parade.  His 
temper  was  violent,  his  talents  respectable,  though  little  culti- 
vated by  education,  and  his  internal  administration  generally 
equitable  and  popular  ;  but  his  private  character  was  licentious, 
and  the  morals  of  the  court,  during  his  reign,  were  very  cor- 
rupt. His  partialities  in  favor  of  his  continental  dominions 
are  represented  as  still  stronger  than  those  of  his  father,  and 
he  has  been  censured  for  involving  Great  Britain  in  expensive 
wars  on  account  of  the  interests  of  the  electorate  of  Hanover. 

5.  The  most  prominent  person  in  the  administration,  during 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  reign  of  George  I.,  and  during 
the  former  part  of  that  of  George  II.,  was  Sir  Roiert  Walpole, 
a  man  whose  policy  was  pacific,  and  who  was  distmguished 
for  his  talents,  and  not  less  so  for  the  system  of  corruption  and 
venality  which  he  practised  while  in  office. 

6.  The  military  operations  of  this  reign  were  extensive  and 
numerous  ;  and  the  British  arms  were,  for  the  most  part,  tri- 
umphant. Charles  VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  died  in 
1740,  was  succeeded  in  his  dominions  by  his  daughter,  the 
celebrated  Maria  Theresa,  who  was  married  to  Francis  of 
Lorraine.  But  Charles,  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  asserted  his 
claim  to  the  throne,  and,  by  the  aid  of  Louis  XV.,  was  elected 
emperor. 

7.  This  gave  rise  to  a  war,  which  involved  the  principal 
states  of  Europe,  called  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession ; 
during  which  the  Allies,  under  George  II.,  defeated  the  French 
in  the  battle^  of  Dcttingcn  (1743);  and  the  French,  under 
Marshal  Snxe,  routed  the  Allies  at  Fnntcnoy  (1745).  Great 
Britain  was  the  principal  support  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  by 
the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapclle,  in  1748,  her  claim  to  the  throne 
was  confirmed. 

8.  While  George  II.  was  absent  on  the  Continent,  at  the  head 
of  the  British  army,  Charles  Edward,  the  young  Pretender, 
assisted  by  Louis  XV.  of  France,  made  an  effort  to  recover 
the  throne  of  his  ancestors.  Having  landed  in  Scotland,  he 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  defeated  the  royal 
forces  in  the  battles  of  Prcston-Pans  and  Falkirk;  but  was 
afterwards  entii'ely  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  in 
the  decisive  battle  of  Culloden  (1746).      This  was  the  las 


ENGLAND.  228 

battle  that  has  been  fought  on  the  soil  of  Great  Britain,  and  it 
terminated  tlic  last  cflbrt  of  the  Sfuart.  family  to  reascend  the 
throne,  whicli  had  been  forfeited  by  the  most  egregious  folly, 
and  the  most  flagitious  attempts. 

9.  In  the  latter  part  of  this  reign,  the  war  between  Great 
Britain  and  France  was  renewed,  and  in  its  progress  the  British 
took  Louishurg,  Fort  dii  Quefsne,  Ticonderoga,  Croivn  Point., 
Niagara,  and  finally,  under  the  command  of  General  Wolfe, 
tliey  gained  possession  of  the  city  of  Qiiehec.  These  successes 
were  followed  by  the  surrender  of  all  Canada  on  the  part  of 
the  French  to  the  English,  in  1763.  During  these  operations 
in  America,  the  British  also  made  extensive  conquests  in  India. 

10.  During  the  reign  of  George  II.,  Great  Britain  made  great 
])rogress  in  wealth  and  general  improvement.  The  national 
debt,  however,  was  more  than  doubled  during  the  reign ;  and 
at  the  end  of  the  seven  years'  war,  in  1763,  it  amounted  to 
nearly  ^139,000,000.  This  debt  was  commenced  during  the 
reign  of  William  and  Mary,  and,  at  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
George  III.,  it  amounted  to  upwards  of  ,£800,000,000. 

11.  George  II.  was  succeeded  (1760)  by  his  grandso'n, 
George  III.,  who  was  the  first  king  of  the  house  of  Brunswick 
that  was  born  in  England.  He  commenced  his  reign  at  an 
auspicious  period,  when  the  arms  of  Great  Britain  were  trium- 
{)hant,  and  the  administration  able  and  popular.  The  war  with 
France  was,  not  long  afterwards,  brought  to  a  close  ;  and  by 
the  peace  of  Paris,  Canada,  and  otlier  territories  in  North 
America,  were  confirmed  to  England. 

12.  William  Pitt  (afterwards  Lord  Chatham)  was  at  the 
head  of  the  administration  during  the  last  years  of  the  pre- 
ceding reign ;  and,  in  the  former  part  of  this,  he  was  the  most 
prominent  public  man  in  the  nation.  At  this  period,  oppres- 
sive measures  were  adopted  by  the  British  government  with  re- 
gard to  the  American  Colonies.  These  Chatham  opposed  with 
iiis  powerful  eloquence  :  but  they  were  persisted  in  ;  hostilities 
were  commenced ;  a  declaration  of  the  independence  of  the 
United  States  was  made,  and  their  independence  was  finally 
acknowledged  by  Great  Britain,  in  1783.      [See  United  Stales.] 

13.  The  other  most  important  events  in  the  history  of  Eng- 
land, during  this  reign,  are  the  extension  of  the  British  do- 
minions in  India,  the  Irish  rebellion  of  1798,  the  union  between 
that  country  and  Great  Britain,  in  1800,  and  the  various  oper- 
ations of  the  unexampled  war  which  grew  out  of  the  French 
Revolution.     [See  France.'] 

14.  In  1789,  the  French  revolution  broke  out,  convulsing  all 
Europe ;  and  it  was  thought  to  threaten  the  overthrow  of  aU 


824  ENGLANa 

established  governments.  The  government  of  Great  Britain, 
alarmed  respecting  its  own  safety,  embarked  zealously  in  the 
European  war,  with  a  view  to  check  the  dissemination  of  dsm- 
ocratic  principles  both  at  home  and  abroad. 

15.  The  system  of  operations  was  devised  and  managed  un- 
der the  direction  of  William  Pitt,  the  son  of  Lord  Chatham, 
who  was  now  at  the  head  of  the  administration.  This  calam- 
itous war  continued  to  convulse  the  Continent  for  25  years, 
and,  during  a  part  of  the  time,  Great  Britain  alone  had  all 
Europe  arrayed  against  her.  But  after  various  fluctuations  of 
failure  and  success,  she  came  off  victorious,  yet  not  without 
an  immense  loss  of  the  blood  of  her  subjects,  and  a  vast  in- 
crease of  her  national  debt.  Some  of  the  principal  victories, 
which  the  British  obtained  during  this  war,  were  those  of  the 
Nile  and  of  Trafalgar,  by  Nelson;  and  those  of  Talavera, 
Salamanca,  Vittoria,  and  Waterloo,  by  Wellington. 

16.  The  reign  of  George  III.,  who  died  in  1820,  was  longer 
than  that  of  any  other  English  monarch ;  and  it  forms  a  dis- 
tinguished period  in  the  history  of  the  kingdom,  on  account  of 
its  military  events,  and  the  progress  of  the  nation  in  commerce, 
wealth,  and  the  arts.  During  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  he 
was  afflicted  with  insanity  to  such  a  degree,  as  entirely  disquali- 
fied him  for  all  business,  and  the  Prince  of  Wales  acted  as  Rc' 
gent.  His  talents  were  not  brilliant,  nor  were  his  views,  as  a 
statesman,  enlarged  ;  but  his  private  character  was  exemplary, 
and  he  was  much  respected  by  his  subjects. 

17.  George  III.  was  succeeded,  in  1820,  by  his  son,  George 
IV.,  who  was  a  man  of  talents  and  accomplishments,  but  whose 
life,  during  both  his  youth  and  his  manhood,  had  been  marked 
by  great  prodigality  and  dissipation ;  and  there  was  little  in  his 
character  or  his  conduct,  while  a  sovereign,  to  entitle  him  to 
the  affection  or  respect  of  his  subjects.  While  a  prince,  and 
not  in  power,  he  connected  himself  with  the  opposition,  or 
Whigs ;  but,  both  as  regent  and  king,  he  adhered  to  the 
Tories,  to  the  neglect  of  his  former  friends. 

18.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  George  IV.,  a  bill  for  di- 
vorcing and  degrading  the  queen,  Caroline,  on  charges  of 
misconduct,  was  introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords,  and,  after 
being  carried  by  a  vote  of  108  to  99,  it  was  abandoned ;  and 
the  queen  soon  after  died. 

19.  The  Greeks  having  for  some  years  maintained  a  sangui- 
nary struggle  for  independence  against  the  Turks,  an  inter- 
position in  their  favor  was  made  by  England,  France,  and 
Russia ;  and  the  united  fleets  of  these  three  powers  obtained, 
in  1827,  a  great  victory  over  the  Turkish  fleet  at  Navarino. 


ENGLAND.  225 

20.  In  1828,  the  Corporation  and  Test  Act,  wliich  had  long 
operated  to  exclude  Catholics  and  Dissenters  from  all  corporate 
uffices,  was  repealed  ;  and  it  was  followed,  in  1829,  by  the  still 
more  important  measure  of  Catholic  Emancipation.  By  this 
act,  the  laws  imposing  civil  disabilities  on  Roman  Catholics 
were  repealed.  In  addition  to  these  great  national  measures, 
many  other  important  alterations  and  improvements  were  made 
in  the  laws  of  Great  Britain  during  the  reign  of  George  IV, 
The  penal  code  was  improved  by  rendering  punishment  more 
certain,  and  much  less  sanguinary. 

21.  George  IV.  was  succeeded,  in  1830,  by  his  brother,  the 
Duke  of  Clarence,  with  the  title  of  William  IV.  In  about  a 
month  after  his  accession,  a  revolution  took  place  in  France, 
which  caused  the  dethronement  of  Charles  X.  A  wide-spread 
feeling  of  uneasiness  and  disaficction  was  felt  in  England,  and 
the  country  was  alarmed  by  numerous  incendiary  fires.  For 
many  years  the  subject  of  a  reform  of  the  representation  of 
tiie  people  in  the  Flouse  of  Commons  had  been  much  agitated ; 
and  it  was  now  more  loudly  called  for  than  ever  before.  On 
the  meeting  of  the  new  parliament,  the  Duke  of  Wellington^ 
the  prime  minister,  unexpectedly  expressed  himself  strongly 
against  any  reform  ;  but  the  duke  and  his  colleagues,  not  find- 
ing themselves  supported  by  a  majority  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, resigned,  and  were  succeeded  by  a  Whig  ministry,  with 
Earl  Grey  at  the  head. 

22.  On  the  1st  of  March,  1831,  Lord  John  Russell,  as  the 
organ  of  the  cabinet,  brought  into  parliament  the  first  Reform 
Bill ;  but  this  bill,  and  also  a  second  one,  tlie  ministry  failed  to' 
carry  through  both  Houses  ;  but  a  third  bill  was,  after  a  violent 
struggle,  carried  and  enacted  into  a  law,  in  June,  1832.  This 
important  measure,  which'  renders  the  House  of  Commons  a 
body  much  more  effectually  representing  the  people,  occupied 
the  greater  part  of  the  first  two  years  of  the  reign  of  William, 
to  the  exclusion  of  almost  all  other  measures. 

23.  The  first  parliament,  elected  under  the  new  system,  as- 
sembled in  .lanuary,  1833  ;  and  the  reform  of  the  representa- 
tion was  soon  followed  by  the  reform  of  the  Irish  church,  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  British  colonies,  with  a  compensa- 
tion of  .^^20,000,000  paid  to  the  planters ;  the  reform  of  the 
poor-laws ;  and  the  renewal,  with  important  provisions,  of  the 
East  India  Charter. 

24.  William  IV.  was  succeeded,  in  1837,  by  Queen  Vic- 
toria,  the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Kent,  the  fourth  son  of 
George  III.  ;  and  she  was  married,  in  1810,  to  Prince  Alheri 
of  Coburg. 


228  ENGLAND. 

25.  The  principal  military  operations  of  the  British,  since 
the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Victoria,  have  been  the  war 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  India  with  the  Afghans^  which  was 
terminated  by  the  annexation  of  the  territory  of  Sinde  to  the 
British  East  India  possessions ;  and  the  war  with  China,  which 
was  caused  by  the  resistance  of  the  Chinese  to  the  trade  in 
opium.  After  various  successes  on  the  part  of  the  English, 
a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded,  in  1842,  the  Chinese  being 
compelled  to  pay  21  millions  of  dollars,  to  cede  the  island  of 
Hong  Kong,  and  to  open  five  of  their  ports  to  British  com- 
merce. 

26.  Some  of  the  most  important  recent  acts  of  the  British 
government  are  the  reduction  of  letter  postage  to  one  penny, 
the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  which  restricted  the  free  importa- 
tion of  corn,  and  the  repeal  of  the  navigation  laws. 

27.  One  of  the  greatest  modern  improvements  in  Great 
Britain  is  the  construction  of  railroads  throughout  all  parts  of 
the  country.  The  first  railroad  on  which  locomotive  steam- 
engines  were  used  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers,  was  the 
Manchester  and  Liverpool  Railroad,  which  was  opened  for  use 
in  1830.  The  number  of  miles  of  railroad  in  actual  use  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  in  1849,  amounted  to  5,447. 

28.  For  some  years  past  the  public  mind  in  England,  Ire- 
land, and  Scotland  has  been  much  agitated  in  relation  to  their 
respective  ecclesiastical  establishments.  In  England  loud  com- 
plaints are  made  of  the  overgrown  revenues  of  the  Established 
Church,  and  the  very  unequal  and  unjust  distribution  of  them ; 
and  of  the  oppressed  condition  of  the  numerous  classes  of  Dis- 
senters. 

29.  "  In  Ireland,"  as  is  observed  by  Sir  Henry  Hardinge, 
"  five  sixths  of  the  property  are  Protestant,  while  five  sixths 
of  the  population  are  Catholic."  Y.et  the  established  religion 
is  that  of  the  Church  of  England,  with  a  richly  endowed  clergy, 
while  the  Catholic  clergy  derive  their  support  from  voluntary 
contributions  and  from  fees  from  their  people,  who  are,  for 
the  most  part,  extremely  poor. 

30.  In  Scotland  a  strenuous  effort  was  made  to  establish  the 
right  of  congregations  to  choose  their  ministers ;  but  the  advo- 
cates of  this  measure,  after  a  long  contest,  failed  of  their 
object ;  and  in  1843,  about  460  out  of  somewhat  more  than 
1,200  ministers  of  the  Established  Church,  "  seceded  in  order 
to  free  themselves  from  the  interference  of  the  civil  courts  in 
ecclesiastical  matters."  The  seceders,  consisting  of  the  minis- 
ters and  such  of  the  laity  as  followed  them,  a  large  and  re* 
Bpectable  body,  now  form  the  "  Free  Church  of  Scotland.'* 


ENGLAND. 


227 


Table  op  the  History  of  England.  — iVo.  1. 

From  the  Accession  of  Egbert,  827,  to  the  Death  of  Richard  HI.,  1485. 

A.  D. 

Kinga. 

>< 

800 

— 

— 

Saxon  Family. 

27 

Egbert 

11 

First  sole  monarch  of  England  :    end   of  the 

S*^ 

Elhelwolf 

20 

Saxon  Ilfptarchy. 

9th 

57 

Elhelbald 

3 

f  The  Danes  begin  their  hostile  attacks,   and 

GO 

Ethelbert 

6 

•?   continue,   for  more  than  two  centuries,    to 

66 

Ethelred  1. 

5 

{   scourge  the  country. 

72 

Alfred 

23 

An  illustrious  king;  has  a  ii«)sperous  leign. 

900 

— 

— 

00 

Edward  the  Elder 

25 

The  Danes  defeated. 

25 

Alhelstan 

16 

Defeats  the  Danes,  Welsh,  Scota,  &c. 

41 

Edmund  I. 

7 

Murdered  by  the  robber  Leolf. 

A  slave  of  superstition,  and  dupe  of  DurutarK 

10;  A 

4S 

Edred 

7 

55 

Edwy 

4 

59 

Edgar 

16 

Dttnstan  archbishop:  Wolves  exterminated. 

75 

Edward  th«  Martyr 

3 

Assassinated  by  order  of  Elfrida. 

Massacre  of  the  Danes  at  the  festival  St.  Brice. 

78 

Ethelred  II. 

37 

1000 

_ 

— 

15 

Sweyn,  Dane 

i 

Conquers  England,  and  is  proclaimed  king. 
Defeated  by  the  Danes,  and  murdered. 

Danish  Kings. 
Completes  the  conquest  of  England. 

16 

Edmund  II.,  Ironside 

1 

17 
36 
39 

Canute  the  Great 
Harold  I.,  Uarefoot 
Canute  II. 

19 

4 

3 

The  power  of  the  Danes  terminates.   ^ 

nth 

Saxon  Line  restored. 

41 

Edward,  Confessor 

24 

First  king  that  touched  for  the  King's  Evil. 

65 

Harold  II. 

1 

Defeated  and  slain  at  Hastings. 
Norman  Family. 

66 

William,  Conqueror 

21 

Conquers  England  ;  introduces  the  Feudal  Sys- 
tem and  Norman  Language. 

1100 

87 

William  11. 

13 

Is  shot  while  hunting.    Archbishop  Anselm. 

00 

Henry  I. 

35 

Usurps  the  throne  of  his  brother  Robert. 

35 

Stephen  (0/ Blois) 

19 

Usurps,  and  has  contests  with  Matilda. 
Family  0/  Plantagenet. 

I2t/i 

54 

Henry  II. 

35 

Conquers  Ireland ;  has  long  and  severe  contests 
with  Becket  ;  rebellion  of  his  sons. 

89 

Richard  1. 

10 

Engages  in  a  Crusade,  and  defeats  Saladin. 

99 

John,  Lackland 

17 

Foreign  dominions  lost:  Magna  Charta. 

1200 

— 

— 

16 

Henry  III. 

56 

Battles  of  Lewes  and    Evesham :    Montfort ; 

13th. 

First  House  of  Commons. 

1300 

72 

Edward  I. 

35 

Subdues  Wales;  battles  of  Falkirk,  &c. 

7 

Edward  II. 

20 

Defeated  by  the  Scots  at  Bannockburn. 

27 

Edward  HI, 

50 

A  splendid  reign  :  Chivalry  in  its  zenith  :  Vic- 
tories of  Cressy,  Poitiers,  &.C. :  Edward  the 

nth 

Black  Prince. 

77 

Richard  II. 

22 

Deposed  and  murdered.     Wickliffe  ;  Chaucer.     1 
Branch  of  Lancaster. 

99 

Henry  IV. 

14 

Gains  the  throne  instead  of  the  rightful  heir. 

1400 

13 

Henry  V. 

9 

Victory  of  Agincourt.     Oldcaslle  burnt 

22 

Henry  VI. 

39 

Civil  wars  of  the  White  and  Red  Rose*      York 
and  Lancaster. 

I5th 

Branch  of  York. 

61 

Edward  FV. 

22 

Battles  of  Towton,  Barnet,  and  Teteksbury. 

83 

Edward  V. 

Murdered  after  a  reign  of  74  days. 

83 

Richard  III. 

2 

Defeated  and  slain  at  Bosworth. 

The  figures  on  the  left  hand  of  the  kings,  in  these  tables,  denote  the  eommencement  o< 
their  reigns.    Thua  it  appears  that  Egbert  begaa  to  reign  ia  827,  and  reigned  11  years. 


238 


ENGLAND. 


Table  of  tue  History  op  England.  —  No.  2. 
From  Henry  VII.,  1485,  to  Victoria. 


A.  D, 

1400 

Wt/i 

1500 


16th, 


1600 


17th 


1700 


I8th 


1800 


I9th 


James  I. 
Charles  I. 


Cromwell 
Charles  II. 


Kinfl:s. 


Henry  VII. 


Henry  VIII. 


Edward  VI. 
Mary 


EUizaboth 


James  II. 

William  III,  &  Mary 


George  I. 
George  11. 

George  III. 


WiUiam  IV. 


Victoria 


House  of  Tudor. 
Marries  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  unit- 
ing the  Houses  of  Yorkk,  Lancaster ;  commerce 
encouraged;^  the  Feudal  System  declines. 


A  cruel  tyrant ;  victory  of  Flodden  by  Surrey  ; 
introduces  the  Reformation  ;  2  queens  divorced, 
two  belieaded;  Wolsey  disgraced;  Bp.  Fishc, 
Sir  T.  More,  Cromwell,  and  Surrei/  beheadecJ. 

Promotes  the  Reformation,  aided  by  Cranmer. 

Restores  Calh.  relig.;  marries  Philip  II.  of  Spain 
Jane  Grey  beheaded  ;  many  Protestants  burnt. 

Has  an  auspicious  reign,  a.ssisted  by  Bacon,  Bur 
leigh,Walsingha?n,&,c.;  agriculture,  commerce, 
and  literature  flourish;  the  Church  of  England 
established;  Mary,  du^en  of  Scots,  beheaded; 
the  Spanish  Armada  destroyed. 


House  of  Stuart. 

Unites  the  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland ; 
the  Gunpowder  Plot  defeated  ;  the  Bible  trans- 
lated ;  the  Puritans  settle  at  Plymouth,  Mass. 

Despotic ;  attempts  to  raise  money  without  con- 
sent of  Parliament;  cm7  irar  rages ;  Strafford 
and  Laud  beheaded ;  Charles  defeated  and  be- 
headed (1649) ;  the  Commonwealth  beg::a3. 

Dissolves  the  Long  Parliament,  and  becomes 
Protector.    Navigation  Act.     Dutch  war. 

Profligate  ;  his  reign  injurious  to  liberty  and  mo- 
rality ;  Plague  and  Fire  in  London ;  Clarendon 
banished  ;  Russell  and  Alg.  Sydney  executed. 

Attempts  to  establish  the  Catholic  religion,  and 
is  obliged  to  abdicate;  hence  the  Revolution. 

Coiistilutioji  confirmed :  battles  of  Boyne  and  La 
Hague:  Peace  oi Ryswick :  Nat.  Debt  begins. 


Marlborough  &  Eugene's  victories  of  Blenheim, 

Ramillies,  Malplaquet,  &c. :  Literal,  flourishes. 

House  of  Brunswick  or  Hanover. 

Kebellion  in  favor  of  the  Pretender  suppressed : 
South  Sea  Scheme.     Walpole  minister. 

Tlie  Pretender  overthrown  at  Cullode?i :  War 
with  France  carried  on  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
A  mcrica :  B.i  ttle  oi Dettingen :  Conq.  of  Canada. 

A  long  and  eventful  reign:  Hostilities  with,  and 
loss  of,  the  American  Colonies :  long  war  with 
France,  terminated  by  the  Ijattie  of  WatcrScv  ,■ 
Possessions  in  India  greatly  extended :  Com- 
merce and  the  arts  flourish  ;  but  the  National 
Debt  greatly  increased.     Regency  1811. 


A  Bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties  brought  into  Par- 
liament against  the  Queen  (Caroline),  but  re- 
linquished: Battle  of  Navarino  :  Corporation 
and  Test  Acts  repealed :  Cathol.  Emancipation. 

The  Duke  of  Wellington's  Ministry  succeeded 
by  that  of  Earl  Grey ;  the  Reform  Bill  passes. 
Irish  Church  Reform:  Colonial  Slavery  abol- 
ished :  East  India  Charter  renewed. 

Married  to  Prince  Albert.  Melbourne,  Peel, 
and  Russell,  prime  ministers. 


ENGLAND. 


229 


Cheonological  Table  of  English  Literature. 

A.  D. 

Statesmen  anc 
Commanders. 

1 
■3 

Poets. 

1 

Divines. 

«' 

"O 

Miscellaneous.  ^ 

1500 

Wolsey 

30 

Skelton 

29 

Tyndale 

36 

Th.  More 

35 

T.  Cromwell 

40 

Wyatt 

41 

Ridley 

55 

Wyalt 

41 

Somerset 

32 

Earl  of  Surrey 

47 

Latimer 

65 

Th.  Klyot 

4G 

Gardiner 

55 

Heywood 

6.5 

Cranmer 

56 

Lelaud 

.52 

S.  Cabot 

57 

Gascoigno 

77 

Card.  Polo 

5S 

Cheke 

57 

Wh 

N.  Bacon 

79 

K.  Greene 

92 

Coverdale 

69 

R.  Ascham 

es 

licicoster 

88 

Marlowe 

93 

J.  Jewel 

71 

Holingshed 

81 

Walsingham 

89 

Southwell 

95 

Knox 

72 

Buchanan 

82 

Drake 

90 

Peele 

97 

J.  Fox 

87 

Tusser 

83 

1600 

Burleigh 

98 

Spenser 

98 

Hooker 

P.  Sidney 

86 

Essex 

1 

F.  Beaumont 

15 

Andrewes 

26 

Napier 

17 

Raleigh 

18 

SHAKSPEARE 

16 

Chillingworth 

H 

BACON 

26 

Strafford 

41 

J.  Fletcher 

25 

Usher 

66 

Camden 

28 

Pym 

43 

Herbert 

35 

Walton 

61 

Coke 

31 

Hampden 

43 

Ben  Jonson 

37 

Th.  Fuller 

61 

Wotton 

39 

FalWand 

43 

Ma.ssinger 

39 

Taylor 

67 

Burton 

.39 

Blake 

57 

G.  Sandys 

43 

Barrow 

77 

Selden 

64 

\7th 

Cromwell 

68 

Quarles 

44 

J.  Owen 

83 

Harvey 

57 

Marvell 

78 

Donne 

62 

Leighton 

84 

Hale 

76 

Monk 

70 

Cowley 

67 

Pearson 

86 

Harrington 

77 

Clarendon 

72 

MILTON 

74 

H.  More 

87 

Hobbes 

79 

Shaftesbury 

83 

Roscommon 

84 

Bunyan 

8S 

Th.  Browne 

82 

Russell 

83 

Otway 

85 

Cud  worth 

8S 

Dugdale 

86 

Alg.  Sidney 

83 

Waller 

87 

Baxter 

91 

Sydenham 

89 

Temple 

Butler 

88 

TiUolson 

94 

Boyle 

91 

1700 

Cavendish 

7 

Drvden 

1 

Howe 

5 

LOCKE 

4 

Godolphin 

12 

Farquhar 

7 

Bull 

9 

Addison 

19 

Somera 

16 

PameU 

17 

M.  Henry 

14 

Sir  C.  Wren 

23 

Marlborough 

22 

Rowe 

18 

Burnet 

15 

NEWTON 

27 

Walpole 

46 

Prior 

21 

South 

16 

De  Foe 

31 

Bolingbroke 

51 

Congreve 

28 

Clarke 

29 

Swift 

45 

Vernon 

57 

Gay 

32 

Watts 

48 

Fielding 

54 

Wolfe 

59 

POPB 

44 

Doddridge 

51 

Richardson 

61 

Boscawen 

61 

Thomson 

43 

Butler 

52 

Sterne 

68 

I8th 

Anaon 

62 

Collins 

56 

Berkeley 

53 

Hume 

76 

Cumberland 

&■; 

A.  Ramsay 

58 

Sherlock 

61 

Garrick 

79 

Lyttelton 

63 

Shenstone 

63 

Lardner 

68 

Blackstono 

80 

Chatham 

78 

Churchill 

64 

Whitefield 

70 

Johnson 

84 

Cook 

79 

Young 

65 

Warburton 

79 

Ad.  Smith 

90 

Rodney 

92 

Akenside 

70 

Lowth 

87 

Hunter 

93 

North 

92 

Gray 

71 

Wesley 

91 

Robertson 

93 

Mansfield 

93 

Goldsmith 

74 

Price 

91 

Gibbon 

^4 

Burke 

97 

Bums 

96 

Campbell 

96 

Wm.  Jones 

&4 

Amherst 

93 

COWPBB 

Blair 

Reid 

97 

1800 

Nelson 

5 

Beattie 

3 

Priestley 

4 

Sheridan 

6 

Pitt 

6 

H.  K.  White 

6 

Paley 

5 

Cavendish 

10 

Fox 

6 

Grahame 

11 

Horsley 

6 

Playfair 

19 

Romilly 

18 

SheUey 

22 

Porteus 

8 

E.  D.  Clarke 

22 

Grattan 

20 

Byron 

24 

Watson 

16 

Herschel 

22 

lOlh 

Erskine 

23 

Crabbe 

32 

Th.  .Scott 

21 

Mitford 

27 

Canning 

27 

W.  Scott 

32 

R.  HaU 

31 

Stewart 

28 

Huskisaon 

30 

Coleridge 

31 

A.  Clarke 

32 

Davy 

29 

Eldon 

38 

Souihey 

43 

Arnold 

42 

Mackintosh 

32 

Grey 

45  Campbell 

44  J.  Foster 

44 

Wilberforce 

33 

20 


230  ENGLAND. 

Remarks  on  thb  Tables  of  English  History  and  Lite- 
rature. 

1.  Some  of  the  most  eminent  sovereigns  who  have  occupied  the  throne 
of  England  are  the  following:  — Alfred,  William  the  Conqueror,  Henry 
11.,  Edward  I.,  Edward  III.,  Henry  VH.,  Elizabeth,  and  William  HI. 

2.  Tlie  cause  of  English  freedom  has  been  most  effectually  promoted 
during  some  of  the  weakest  and  least  prosperous  reigns;  as  those  of 
John,  Henry  HI.,  Charles  I.,  and  James  H. 

'.).  Some  of  the  most  important  political  changes,  or  revolutions,  that 
liave  taken  place  in  England  since  the  Norman  Conquest,  are  the  grant- 
ing of  the  Magna  Charta,  or  the  Great  Charter,  in  the  time  of  King 
John  ;  the  establishment  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  time  of  Henry 
HI. ;  the  Reformation  in  religion  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VHI.;  the  union 
of  the  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  at  the  commencement  of  the 
reign  of  James  I. ;  the  civil  war  between  Charles  I.  and  the  English 
Parliament,  which  issued  in  the  defeat  and  execution  of  the  king,  and  the 
establishment  of  the  Commonwealth  under  Cromwell ;  the  restoration 
of  the  monarchy  under  Charles  H. ;  the  dethronement  or  abdication  of 
James  H. ;  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  principles  of  the  Constitution  (1688) ;  the  legislative  union  be- 
tween England  and  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  ;  the  union 
of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain  in  the  reign  of  George  HI.  (1800);  and  the 
Reform  of  Parliament  in  the  reign  of  William  IV.  (1832). 


1.  CAfflMccr,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  early  English  poets,  flourished 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  14th  century,  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  III.  and 
Richard  II. ;  but  English  classical  literature  may  be  considered  as  begin- 
ning in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century,  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
with  Hooker,  a  learned  divine,  Spenser  and  Skakspeare,  eminent  poets, 
and  Bacon,  the  philosopher,  who  also  lived  through  the  reign  of  James  I. 
The  reign  of  Queen  Anne  was  particularly  distinguished  for  men  of  ge- 
nius, among  whom  were  JVeicton,  Addison,  Pope,  and  Swift. 

2.  Wolsey  and  Gardiner,  who  are  placed  in  the  left-hand  column,  were 
both  ecclesiastics  and  bishops,  though  jnore  distinguished  as  statesmen 
than  as  divines.  Of  those  who  are  placed  in  the  right-hand  column.  Sir 
Thomas  More,  the  author  of  "  Utopia,"  &c.,  and  Lord  Bacon,  the  phi- 
losopher, were  both  chancellors  of  England  ;  Sir  Matthew  Hale  was  an 
eminent  judge  ;  Sir  Edward  Coke,  a  great  lawyer  : —  Sir  Philip  Sidneij, 
the  author  of  "Arcadia,"  &c.,  Harrington,  the  author  of  "Oceana," 
&c..  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  John  Selden,  and  Sir  William,  Jones,  all  eminent 
scholars,  were  also  distinguished  in  political  life. 

3.  Some  who  are  classed  in  the  Table  among  statesmen  and  com- 
manders are  also  distinguished  as  authors,  as  Raleigh,  Clarendon,  Baling- 
broke,  Lyttleton,  Temple,  Marvell,  Algernon  Sydney,  Burke,  &c. ;  some 
classed  among  the  divines  and  miscellaneous  authors  are  also  noted  as 
poets,  as  Addison,  Watts,  Sicift,  &c. ;  and  some  of  the  poets  are  also  em- 
inent as  prose  writers. 

4.  Shakspeare,  the  great  English  dramatist,  is  eminently  distinguished 
for  geruus  ;  Milton  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  epic  poet  of  modern  times  ; 
Lord  Bacon  pointed  out  the  true  mode  of  philosophizing;  the  works  of 
Kewton  formed  an  era  in  natural  philosophy  and  astronomy,  as  did  thos« 
of  Locke  in  the  pliilosophy  of  the  human  mind. 

5.  There  are  many  names  of  much  merit  in  English  literature,  in  ad 
dition  to  those  contained  in  the  Table. 


EUROPEAN  STATEa  231 


EUROPEAN    STATES. 


The  history  of  the  other  States  of  Europe  is  less  interesting 
and  important,  especially  to  American  readers,  than  that  of 
England  and  France.  A  brief  sketch  is  here  given  of  tho 
history  of  several  of  the  other  states  ;  and  also  a  tabular  view 
of  the  succession  of  the  sovereigns  of  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  them. 


SCOTLAND. 


1.  The  pretensions  of  Scotland  to  a  regular  succession  of 
kmgs,  from  so  remote  a  period  as  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  are  not  supported  by  any  credible  evidence.  —  When 
Britain  was  abandoned  by  the  Romans,  A.  D.  410,  Scotland 
was  divided  among  a  number  of  hostile  tribes,  the  principal 
of  which  were  the  Scots  and  Ficts ;  but,  between  the  years 
838  and  843,  Kenneth  II.  subdued  the  latter,  and  became  king 
of  all  Scotland, 

2.  Various  contests  took  place  between  Scotland  and  the 
kings  of  England,  the  most  memorable  of  which  happened  in 
tlic  reign  of  Edward  J.,  who  conquered  the  country  ;  but  he 
found  able  antagonists  in  the  heroic  Sir  William  Wallace  and 
Robert  Bruce,  the  latter  of  whom  defeated  the  English  in  the 
decisive  battle  of  Bannockhurti,  and  established  himself  on  tho 
throne. 

3.  James  VI.,  the  infant  son  of  the  celebrated  Queen  Mary, 
was  proclaimed  king,  after  her  resignation  in  1567,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  crown  of  England  in  1603 ;  since  which  period 
the  two  countries  have  been  governed  by  one  and  the  same 
monarch ;  and  this  connection  was  rendered  perpetual  by  the 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms,  in  1706,  during  the  reign  of  Queen 
A7ine.  Since  that  period,  the  representative  peers  of  Scotland 
have  formed  a  part  of  the  British  House  of  Lords  ;  and  Scot- 
land has  also  sent  members  to  the  British  House  of  Commons. 


233  EUROPEAN  STATES. 


GERMANY. 

1.  In  843,  the  Empire  of  the  West  was  divided  into  three 
monarchies,  France,  Germany,  and  Italy ;  and  at  the  close  of 
the  reign  of  Charles  the  Fat,  in  887,  the  imperial  dignity  was 
transferred  entirely  to  Germany^  which,  in  European  history, 
is  styled,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  Emjnre,  and  its  subjects, 
the  Imperialisls.  During  more  than  half  of  the  10th  century, 
it  was  governed,  successively,  by  two  able  sovereigns,  Henry 
the  Fowler,  and  his  son,  Otho  the  Great.  The  latter  reiinited 
Italy  to  the  empire,  and  was  the  greatest  sovereign  of  the 
age. 

2.  The  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  sometimes  called  the  Great, 
during  the  last  half  of  the  11th  century,  is  memorable  for  his 
quarrel  with,  and  humiliating  submission  to,  pope  Gregory  VII. 
(Hildebrand).  The  election  of  Conrad  III.  gave  rise  to  two 
celebrated  factions,  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibelines,  which  harassed 
Germany  and  Italy  during  three  centuries  ;  and  during  this  pe- 
riod the  imperial  authority  declined,  and  the  papal  increased. 
The  Ghibelines  were  attached  to  the  emperor ;  the  Guelphs  to 
the  pope. 

3.  The  reign  of  Frederick  I.,  surnamed  Barharossa,  or  Red- 
heard,  was  signalized  by  his  contests  with  Pope  Alexander  III., 
and  by  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land,  during  which  he  was 
drowned  in  a  small  river  in  Cilicia,  in  1190.  —  After  the  reign 
of  Conrad  IV.  succeeded  a  period  of  contention  and  confusion, 
called  the  Great  Interregnum,  which,  after  continuing  19  years, 
was  terminated  by  the  election  of  Rodolph,  Count  of  Hapsburg, 
in  Switzerland,  to  the  imperial  throne,  in  1273. 

4.  The  principal  events  in  the  history  of  the  latter  emperors 
of  the  Franconian  line,  and  of  all  the  princes  of  the  Swahian 
line,  were  produced  by  contests  between  the  popes  and  the 
emperors.  The  grounds  of  these  contests  were,  1st,  the  right 
claimed  by  the  emperors  of  nominating  to  vacant  bishoprics, 
and  the  form  of  investing  the  bishops  with  the  tempoi'al  pos- 
sessions of  their  sees  ;  2d,  the  claims  of  the  popes  to  hold  their 
possessions  in  Italy,  independent  of  the  emperors ;  3d,  the 
claim  of  the  popes  to  supreme  dominion,  both  temporal  and 
spiritual,  in  every  part  of  the  Christian  world. 

5.  The  reign  of  Louis  IV.  was  much  disturbed  by  contests 
with  pope  John  XXII.  The  emperor  was  excommunicated 
by  the  pope,  and  his  election  declared  void ;  and  the  pope  was 
also  deposed  by  the  emperor.  The  princes  of  the  empire  as- 
sembled at  Frankfort,  in  1338,  and  established  the  famous  con- 
Btitution,  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction^  by  which  it  w£is  de- 


EUROPEAN  STATES.  233 

termined  that  the  pope  had  no  right  to  approve  or  reject  the 
election  of  an  emperor. 

6.  The  reign  of  Sigistmmd  is  memorable  for  the  meeting  of 
the  famous  Council  of  Constance,  in  order  to  determine  the 
contest  respecting  the  papal  authority.  Jolm  Huss  and  Jerome 
q/"  Prao'jie  were  condemned  (1415)  by  this  council,  and  de- 
livered over  to  the  secular  power  to  be  burnt  as  heretics. 
Their  adherents  in  Bohemia  took  up  arms  in  defence  of  their 
religion,  and,  under  their  famous  leader,  Zisca,  resisted  Sigis- 
mund  in  a  war  of  16  years. 

7.  Maximilian  I.  (1477)  acquired  by  marriage  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  Netherlands,  divided  Germany  into  circles,  in- 
stituted the  Imperial  Chamber  and  the  Aulic  Council,  and  by 
these  means  established  a  perpetual  peace  among  the  separate 
states,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  subsequent  grandeur  of 
the  empire. 

8.  Charles  V.  [Charles  I.  of  Spain],  grandson  of  Maximil- 
ian, was  the  greatest  and  most  powerful  sovereign  of  his  age. 
After  a  reign  of  nearly  40  years,  during  most  of  which  he  was 
engaged  in  war,  chiefly  with  his  great  rival,  Francis  I.  of 
France,  and  raised  the  house  of  Austria  to  its  highest  splendor, 
he  voluntarily  resigned  the  crown  of  Spain  to  his  son,  Philip 
II.,  in  1556,  left  the  throne  of  Germany  to  his  brother,  Ferdi- 
nand, and  retired  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Just,  in  Spain,  in 
order  to  devote  himself  to  the  privacy  of  monastic  life,  and 
forget  the  cares  of  government  and  the  temptations  of  the 
world.  During  his  reign,  the  Reformation  made  great  progress 
in  Germany,  which,  however,  Charles  strenuously  opposed. 

9.  The  reigns  of  Ferdinand  II.  and  Ferdinand  III.  were 
signalized  by  the  Thirty  years''  war,  which  commenced  in 
1618,  and  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  in 
1648.  This  war  grew  chiefly  out  of  the  religious  dissensions 
of  the  16th  century :  on  one  side  was  the  Protestant  confed- 
eracy, styled  the  Evangelical  Union ;  and,  on  the  other,  the 
Catholic  League.  It  issued  in  securing  an  equal  establishment 
of  the  Protestant  and  Catholic  religions. 

10.  By  the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  the  male  line  of  the  house 
of  Hapsburg  became  extinct ;  and  the  circumstance  of  there 
being  two  claimants  to  the  throne  gave  rise  to  a  war,  styled 
the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  which  was  terminated  by 
the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748,  by  which  the  claim  of 
the  celebrated  Maria  Theresa  was  acknowledged,  and  her 
consort,  Francis  of  Lorraine,  was  invested  with  the  imperial 
dignity. 

11.  In  1806,  Francis  II.,  who  had  two  years  before  assumed 
the  title  of  hereditary  Emjjcror  of  Austria,  solemnly  resigned 

20* 


234  EUROPEAN  STATES. 

his  title  as  Emperor  of  Germany.  Thus  ended  the  German 
empire,  after  having  lasted,  from  the  commencement  of  the 
Western  Empire  under  Charlemagne,  1006  years. 

12.  The  imperial  government  was  hereditary  during  the 
Carlovingian  dynasty ;  afterwards,  always  elective  ;  but  the 
mode  of  election  was  different  at  different  periods.  At  first, 
the  emperor  was  chosen  by  the  people  at  large  ;  then  by  the 
nobility  and  principal  officers  of  state ;  afterwards,  by  the  five 
following  great  officers,  namely,  the  chancellor,  the  great  mar- 
shal, the  great  chamberlain,  the  great  butler,  and  the  great 
master  of  the  palace.  At  first  they  assumed  the  right  of  only 
proposing  candidates  to  the  general  body  of  electors ;  but  at 
length  confined  the  whole  right  of  election  to  themselves.  — 
After  much  discontent,  this  was  finally  settled  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IV.,  by  the  celebrated  constitution,  called  the  Golden 
Bull,  which  fixed  the  right  of  election  in  four  spiritual  and 
three  temporal  electors,  namely,  the  Archbishops  of  Mentz,  of 
Cologne,  and  of  Treves ;  the  King  of  Bohemia ;  the  Count 
Palatine,  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  the  Margrave  of  Branden- 
burg. At  subsequent  periods,  the  Dukes  of  Bavaria  and  of 
Brunswick-Lunenburg  were  advanced  to  the  electoral  dignity. 

13.  In  1848,  a  grand  national  congress,  composed  of  500 
deputies  from  all  parts  of  Germany,  assembled  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Maine,  with  the  design  of  framing  a  constitution,  and 
uniting  all  the  German  states  under  one  confederated  govern- 
ment ;  but  the  object  was  not  carried  into  effect. 


AUSTRIA. 


1.  Austria,  which  was  erected  into  an  hereditary  empire  in 
1804,  is  one  of  the  leading  states  in  Europe ;  and  it  has  been 
one  of  the  great  pillars  for  sustaining  arbitrary  or  absolute 
government.  Prince  Metternich,  an  able  statesman,  late  prime 
minister  of  the  empire,  had  for  about  40  years  the  principal 
direction  of  the  public  affairs,  and  was  a  zealous  supporter 
of  arbitrary  power. 

2.  The  revolution  which,  in  1848,  drove  Louis  Philippe  from 
the  throne  of  France,  immediately  caused  an  insurrection  at 
Vienna,  and  swept  Metternich  from  the  seat  of  power  which 
he  had  long  held.  The  emperor  Ferdinand  soon  fled  from 
Vienna,  and,  not  long  after,  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  nephew, 
Francis  Joseph. 


EUROPEAN   STATES.  ^ 

3.  The  Austrian  dominions  in  the  nortli  of  Italy  soon  re- 
volted against  Austria,  and  were  assisted  by  Charles  Albert^ 
King  of  Sardinia.  A  sanguinary  contest  ensued  ;  but  the  Aus- 
trians,  under  the  command  of  Marshal  lladetsky,  were  tri- 
umphant. 

4.  Tlie  kingdom  of  Hungary,  which  forms  a  large  part  of 
the  Austrian  empire,  though  it  has  long  had  a  distinct  constitu- 
tion, soon  afterwards  revolted  from  Austria,  on  account  of  its 
constitution  being  violated  by  the  latter,  declared  independence 
(IS  19),  and  established  a  provisional  government,  with  Kossuth 
at  its  head. 

5.  The  emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia  Interposed  in  favor  of 
Austria,  sent  a  powerful  army  into  Hungary,  and,  after  a  san- 
guinary and  desolating  war,  the  main  division  of  the  Hungarian 
army,  under  Gorgey,  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  Prince 
Paskiewitch,  the  Russian  commander,  in  August,  1849. 

6.  In  March,  1849,  the  emperor  of  Austria  issued  a  liberal 
constitution,  which  guarantees  political  and  religious  liberty, 
freedom  of  the  press  and  speech,  and  a  legislative  body,  com- 
posed of  two  houses. 


SPAIN. 

1.  In  the  early  part  of  the  5th  century,  Spain,  after  having 
long  been  in  the  possession  of  the  Romans,  was  invaded  by 
the  Suevi,  Vandals,  and  Alans,  who  were,  ere  long,  subdued 
by  the  Visigoths,  or  Western  Goths.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
8th  century,  the  country  was  invaded  by  the  Moors  or  Sara- 
cens, who,  under  their  commander  Muza,  gained,  in  713,  the 
great  battle  of  Xercs,  in  which  Roderick,  the  Gothic  king, 
was  slain. 

2.  In  a  few  years,  the  Moors  overran  the  most  of  the  coun- 
try, which,  for  some  time,  was  governed  by  viceroys  of  the 
Saracen  Caliphs ;  but,  in  755,  Ahderrahman,  of  the  house  of 
Ommiades,  established  an  independent  sovereignty,  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Caliph  of  Cordova,  which  city  he  made  the 
seat  of  his  empire,  and  also  of  arts  and  magnificence  ;  and  his 

-posterity  kept  possession  of  the  throne  nearly  three  centuries. 
But  the  territories  of  the  Moors  were  soon  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  separate  sovereignties,  of  which  the  most  considerable, 
in  the  earlier  part  of  their  residence  in  Spain,  was  the  caliphate 
of  Cordova,  and,  in  the  latter  part,  the  caliphate  of  Granada. 

3.  When  Spain  was  first  invaded  and  conquered   by  tha 


236  EUROPEAN  STATEa 

Moors,  the  Gothic,  or,  as  they  were  now  styled,  the  Christian 
forces,  retired  into  the  Asturias,  and,  under  their  leader  Pela- 
gio,  founded  a  kingdom  in  718;  and  they  gradually  recovered 
other  parts  of  the  country.  For  several  centuries,  the  history 
of  Spain  presents  a  continued  struggle  between  the  Christians 
and  Moors;  and  the  latter  part  of  the  11th  century  was  illus- 
trated by  the  exploits  of  the  famous  Spanish  hero,  Don  Rod- 
rigo  Diaz,  Count  of  Bivar,  surnamed  the  Cid. 

4.  Several  distinct  Christian  kingdoms,  which  subsisted  for  a 
long  period,  were  established,  the  most  considerable  of  which 
were  Castile  and  Leon,  Arragon,  and  Navarre.  In  1479,  Per- 
dinand  II.,  who  had  been  previously  married  to  Isabella, 
Queen  of  Castile  and  Leon,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Arra- 
gon, and  their  kingdoms  now  became  united.  Granada,  the 
only  possession  now  held  by  the  Moors  in  Spain,  was  soon 
after  taken  (1492);  Navarre  was  subsequently  conquered, 
and  all  Spain  became,  for  the  first  time,  united  into  one 
monarchy. 

5.  The  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  forms  an  eventful 
period  in  the  history  of  Spain,  on  account  of  military  exploits, 
the  expulsion  of  the  Moors,  the  union  of  the  country  into  one 
kingdom,  and  the  discovery  of  America  (1492),  which  brought 
an  immense  accession  of  wealth  to  the  Spanish  crown,  and  laid 
the  foundation  for  vast  colonial  possessions  in  this  continent. 

6.  During  the  long  reigns  of  Charles  I.  [Charles  V.  of  Ger- 
many] and  Philip  II.,  Spain  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
affairs  of  the  world,  and,  on  account  of  her  extensive  posses- 
sions in  both  continents,  was  regarded  as  the  most  formidable 
power  in  Europe  ;  but,  since  that  period,  her  comparative  con- 
sequence has  declined,  and  she  has  long  held  only  a  secondary 
rank  among  the  European  states.  The  most  flourishing  period 
of  Spanish  literature  was  during  the  time  when  the  kingdom 
was  governed  by  princes  of  the  house  of  Austria,  in  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries. 

7.  In  1808,  Charles  IV.  was  dethroned  by  Bonaparte,  who 
placed  on  the  throne  of  Spain  his  brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte. 
A  sanguinary  war  ensued,  which  lasted  till  1813;  and  Ferdi- 
nand VII.,  the  son  of  Charles  IV.,  was  established  on  the 
throne. 

8.  Within  the  space  of  ten  years,  from  1811  to  1821,  all 
the  Spanish  colonies  on  the  continent  of  North  and  South 
America  revolted  from  Spain,  and  declared  their  independ- 
ence. Since  that  time,  the  kingdom  of  Spain  has  been  much 
harassed  by  civil  war  and  political  commotion. 


EUROPEAN  STATES  237 


PORTUGAL. 


1.  This  kingdom  forms  the  greatest  part  of  what  was  an- 
ciently called  Lusitania ;  and  its  early  liistory  is  involved  with 
that  of  Spain,  it  having  heen  successively  in  subjection  to  the 
Romans,  Suein,  Visigoths,  and  Moors. 

2.  In  the  contests  between  the  Moors  and  Christians,  Henry, 
^)uke  of  Burgundy,  having  rendered  important  services  to  Al- 
phoiiso,  or  Alonzo,  King  of  Castile,  was  rewarded  by  him,  in 
1094,  with  that  part  of  Portugal  which  was  not  in  possession 
of  the  Moors,  to  be  held  with  the  title  of  count  or  earl.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Al2)honso,  who  gained  a  signal  vic- 
tory over  the  Moors,  at  Orique,  threw  off  the  Castiliun  yoke, 
and  assumed  the  title  of  king,  in  1139. 

3.  The  reign  of  John  I.,  which  began  in  1385,  is  famous  for 
his  victories  over  the  Castilians,  and  his  expeditions  against  the 
Moors ;  but  still  more  so  for  the  impulse  given  by  Prince  Hen- 
ry, the  Mariner,  to  navigation  and  the  progress  of  discovery, 
a  department  of  enterprise  and  skill  in  which  the  Portuguese 
were,  for  a  long  time,  unrivalled  by  any  other  nation. 

4.  The  reigns  of  Joh7i  II.  and  Emanuel  were  distinguished 
for  important  discoveries.  During  the  reign  of  the  former, 
Bartholomew  Diaz  reached  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  1486 ; 
and  during  that  of  the  latter,  Vasco  de  Gamu,  in  1497,  doubled 
the  same  Cape,  and  sailed  to  India.  From  that  period,  the 
trade  between  that  country  and  Europe  was  diverted  from  its 
former  channel  through  the  Red  Sea  and  Egypt ;  and  for  many 
years  the  navigation  of  the  Cape  was  considered  as  the  exclu- 
sive property  of  the  Portuguese,  on  the  ground  of  first  discov- 
ery ;  nor  was  their  monopoly  effectually  invaded  till  the  I'ise 
of  the  Dutch. 

5.  The  space  intervening  between  the  commencement  of 
the  reign  of  John  I.  (1385),  and  the  conquest  of  Portugal  by 
Philip  II.  of  Spain  (1580),  forms  the  golden  period  of  the  mon- 
archy —  a  period  which  was  illustrated  by  the  exploits,  both 
in  discovery  and  conquest,  of  a  succession  of  distinguished 
heroes,  and  also  by  the  productions  of  several  men  of  genius 
and  learning,  among  whom  the  poet  Camoens,  the  author  of 
the  Lusiad,  who  died  in  1579,  holds  the  first  rank. 

6.  In  1580,  the  male  line  of  tlie  royal  family  of  Portugal 
having  become  extinct,  and  the  kingdom  having  suffered  a 
series  of  misfortunes,  Philip  II.  of  Spain  seized  upon  it,  and 
united  it  to  his  crown ;  but,  in  1640,  the  Spaniards  were  ex- 
pelled, and  John,  Duke  of  Braganza,  the  presumptive  heir, 
was  raised  to  the  throne,  in  whose  family  it  still  remains. 


238  EUROPEAN  STATES. 

7.  Two  years  after  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Cabral,  a  Portuguese,  discovered  Brazil,  which  waa 
colonized  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  and,  till  lately 
formed  an  important  part  of  the  territories  of  the  kings  of 
Portugal. 

8.  In  1807,  Portugal  being  invaded  by  the  French,  the  royal 
family  removed  the  seat  of  government  to  Brazil,  where  they 
remained  till  1820,  when  they  returned  to  Lisbon,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Pedro  or  Peter,  the  king's  eldest  son,  who  was  left 
regent.  In  1823,  Brazil  was  declared  an  independent  empire, 
under  Pedro,  who  took  the  title  of  emperor ;  and,  in  1825,  its 
independence  was  acknowledged  by  Portugal.  In  1826,  the 
throne  of  Portugal  became  vacant  by  the  death  of  John  VI. 
Pedro,  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  resigned  his  claims  to  the  crown 
in  favor  of  his  daughter,  Maria  da  Gloria  {Maria  II.),  who 
was  proclaimed  queen ;  but  Miguel,  a  younger  brother  of  Pe- 
dro, aspired  to  the  throne.  After  a  long  struggle  he  was  ex- 
pelled, in  1832,  from  the  Portuguese  territories. 


THE   NETHERLANDS. 

1.  This  country,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  comprised  various 
small  states,  governed  by  counts  or  earls.  In  the  15th  cen- 
tury, most  of  the  country,  which  had  then  become  the  seat  of 
extensive  manufactures  and  the  centre  of  European  commerce, 
was  possessed  by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy ;  but,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  century,  these  provinces  were  transferred,  by  the 
marriage  of  Maximilian,  to  the  house  of  Austria. 

2.  In  1555,  they  were  resigned  by  Charles  V.  to  his  son, 
Philip  II.,  King  of  Spain.  In  1579,  the  Seven  United  Prov- 
inces of  Holland  revolted  from  the  tyranny  of  Philip,  and  es- 
tablished their  independence  :  part  of  the  others  continued  in 
the  possession  of  Spain  till  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  when 
they  were  again  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria,  which  held 
them  till  1794,  when  they  were  conquered  by  the  French. 

3.  Soon  after  the  Dutch  Provinces  had  emancipated  them- 
selves from  Spain,  and  established  their  independence  and  a 
free  government,  they  rose,  by  industry  and  enterprise,  to  a 
high  degree  of  prosperity,  and  became  one  of  the  most  for- 
midable maritime  powers  in  the  world.  They  stripped  the 
Spaniards  of  some  of  their  most  valuable  establishments  in  the 
East  Indies  and  America,  and  extended  their  commerce  in  all 
directions. 


EUROPEAN  STATES.  239 

4.  In  1815,  the  Seven  Provinces,  or  Holland,  and  the  ten 
Bouthern  or  Belgian  provinces,  were  united  by  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  and  erected  into  a  kingdom,  by  the  name  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, under  the  government  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  This 
union  continued  15  years. 

5.  In  1830,  encouraged  by  the  revolution  which  expelled 
Charles  X.  from  France,  the  Belgians  revolted,  and  established 
a  separate  kingdom  by  the  name  of  Belgium  ;  and  Prince 
Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg,  widower  of  Princess  Charlotte  of 
England,  was  raised  to  the  throne. 


POLAND. 


1.  Miceslaus,  Prince  of  Poland,  introduced  Christianity  into 
the  country  in  the  10th  century.  The  most  flourishing  period 
of  the  monarchy  was  during  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  when 
Poland  ranked  among  the  most  formidable  states  of  Europe. 

2.  Casimir  III.,  surnamed  the  Great,  in  the  14th  century, 
founded  the  University  of  Cracoio,  patronized  learning,  en- 
couraged industry  and  commerce,  and  furnished  the  nation 
with  a  code  of  written  laws.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  14th 
century,  Jagellon  [Ladislaus  V.],  Duke  of  Lithuania,  by  his 
marriage  with  Hedtoiga,  Queen  of  Poland,  united  the  two 
countries. 

3.  Under  the  reign  of  Sigismund  I.  (begun  in  1507),  the 
kingdom  reached  its  highest  pitch  of  dominion  and  splendor. 
It  afterwards  declined,  but  its  falling  glory  was,  for  a  time,  up- 
held by  John  Sobieski,  the  last  great  man  among  its  sovereigns. 

4.  Poland  was  conquered  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia,  Aus- 
tria, and  Prussia,  and  subjected  by  them  to  three  different  par- 
titions :  the  first  in  1772 ;  the  second  in  1793 ;  the  third  in 
1795,  when  Stanislaus  was  deprived  of  regal  dignity,  and  his 
ill-fated  country,  by  an  act  of  the  vilest  tyranny,  was  blotted 
out  from  the  list  of  kingdoms. 

5.  After  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  in  1807,  the  most  of  Poland 
that  had  been  taken  by  Prussia  was  erected  into  a  sovereign 
state,  under  the  title  of  the  Duchy  of  Warsa2v.  In  1815,  a 
part  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  was  given  to  Prussia,  under  the 
name  of  the  duchy  or  province  of  Posen.  Most  of  the  re- 
mainder was  erected  into  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy,  vested  in  a  viceroy,  appointed  by  the  Em- 
peror of  Russia. 


240  EUROPEAN  STATES. 

6.  The  Grand-Duke  Constaiitine,  brother  of  the  Emperor 
of  Russia,  being  appointed  Viceroy  of  Poland,  administered 
tlie  government  in  the  most  oppressive  manner.  In  1830,  an 
insurrection  broke  out,  which  terminated,  after  a  sanguinary 
struggle,  in  the  entire  subjugation  of  the  Poles  ;  and  the  king 
dom  of  Poland  was  incorporated  into  the  Russian  empire. 

7.  The  emperor  Nicholas  exercised  the  utmost  severity 
against  the  Poles.  The  Universities  of  Warsaw  and  Wilna, 
and  many  minor  schools,  were  abolished,  and  public  libraries 
and  museums  were  carried  to  St.  Petersburg. 


SWEDEN. 


1.  This  country,  together  with  Norway,  formed  the  Scan- 
dinavia  of  the  ancients,  long  the  seat  of  the  Goths  and  Van- 
dals. —  In  1388,  Sweden  became  subject  to  Margaret  of  Den- 
mark, styled  the  Semiramis  of  the  North,  who  joined  the  three 
kingdoms  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway  in  one,  by  the 
Union  of  Cahnar,  in  1397.  But  her  successor  being  destitute 
of  her  great  abilities,  this  union  fell  to  nothing,  and  Sweden 
was,  for  a  long  time,  disturbed  by  insurrections  and  war. 

2.  In  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century,  the  Swedes  were 
delivered  from  the  oppression  of  Christian  II.,  King  of  Den- 
mark, styled  the  Nero  of  the  North,  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  a 
descendant  from  the  ancient  kings,  and  an  enlightened  prince, 
who  was  raised  to  the  throne  in  1523,  and  who  promoted  the 
welfare  of  his  subjects,  and  introduced  the  Protestant  religion. 

3.  The  reign  of  Giistavus  Adolphus,  surnamed  the  Great, 
forms  a  distinguished  era  in  the  histoi-y  of  Sweden.  He  was 
eminent  as  a  statesman  and  a  sovereign,  and  is  ranked  among 
the  greatest  commanders  of  modern  times.  He  took  part  with 
the  Protestants  in  the  Thirty  years'*  war,  and  was  their  most 
distinguished  general.  After  having  gained  a  series  of  advan- 
tages, he  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  in  1632. 

4.  Charles  XII.,  who  possessed  an  enthusiastic  passion  foi 
glory,  and  a  romantic  spirit  to  a  degree  of  infatuation,  is  bj 
some  styled  the  Alexander,  and  by  others  the  Madman,  of  thi 
North.  After  a  brilliant  career  of  victory  in  his  wars  with 
the  Danes,  Poles,  and  Russians,  he  Avas,  at  last,  entirely  de 
feated  by  Peter  the  Great,  in  the  batde  of  Poltava,  in  1709  s 
since  which,  the  Swedish  territories  have  been  exposed  to  a 
progressive  reduction  by  the  rising  power  of  Russia. 


EUROPEAN   STATES.  241 

5.  Gustavus  IV.,  having  lost  Finland,  which  was  conquered, 
in  1808,  by  Russia,  and,  by  his  mad  schemes,  brought  his  king- 
dom to  th(;  brink  of  ruin,  was,  in  1809,  deposed,  and  Berna- 
dotte,  one  of  Bonaparte's  marshals,  was  elected  crown  prince, 
[n  1814,  the  loss  of  Finland  was  repaired  by  the  acquisition  of 
Norway. 

6.  On  the  death  of  Charles  XITL,  in  1817,  Bcrnadottc  was 
raised  to  the  throne  by  the  title  of  Charles  XIV.,  and,  after  a 
pacific  and  prosperous  reign  of  26  years,  was  succeeded,  in 
1844,  by  his  son  Oscar. 


DENMARK. 

1.  In  1448,  the  crown  of  Denmark  fell  to  Christian  I.,  of  the 
house  of  Holstein  or  Oldenburg.  The  monarchy  was  origi- 
nally elective,  and  great  power  was  possessed  by  the  nobility 
until  the  year  1660,  when,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  un- 
favorable issue  of  a  war  with  Sweden,  and  partly  on  account 
of  the  oppression  of  the  aristocracy,  it  was  changed  to  an 
hereditary  absolute  government. 

2.  In  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  Denmark,  during 
the  reign  of  Frederick  IV.,  waged  an  unsuccessful  war  against 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  which  was  ended  in  1720  ;  from  which 
time  the  country  enjoyed  almost  uninterrupted  peace  till  1801. 

3.  During  the  pacific  reigns  of  Christian  VI.  and  Frederick 
V.  (1730  to  1766),  the  kingdom  was  in  a  prosperous  condition. 
The  latter  was  assisted  by  Count  Bernstoff,  a  distinguished 
statesman,  whose  nephew,  of  the  same  name,  acted  an  impor- 
tant and  conspicuous  part  in  government,  during  the  reign  of 
Christian  VII. 

4.  Christian  VII.  (1766),  a  weak  and  dissolute  prince,  mar- 
ried Caroline  Matilda,  sister  of  George  III.  of  England,  who 
was  accused  of  having  had  improper  connection  with  Count 
Struensee,  the  minister  and  favorite  of  the  king.  Struensee 
was  condemned  and  executed,  and  Matilda,  after  being  impris- 
oned, was  permitted  to  pass  the  remainder  of  her  life  at  Zell, 
in  Hanover. 

5.  In  1801,  Copenhagen  was  attacked  by  a  British  fleet  un- 
der Lord  Nelson  ;  and  in  1807,  when  the  country  was  at  peace, 
the  city  was  bombarded  by  a  British  armament,  under  Lord 
Cathcart  and  Admiral  Gamhier,  under  pretence  that  informa- 
tion had  been  received  that  Denmark  intended  to  throw  herself 
into  the  scale  of  France.     The  whole  Danish  fleet,  consisting 

21 


242  EUROPEAN   STATES. 

of  18  ships  of  the  line,  and  15  frigates,  were  surrendered  to 
the  British.  This  unjust  transaction  has  been  generally  and 
loudly  exclaimed  against. 

6.  In  January,  1848,  Frederick  VII.  succeeded  to  the  throne 
of  Denmark ;  the  duchies  of  Slesioick  and  Holstein  soon  re 
volted  ;  but,  after  a  severe  and  sanguinary  struggle,  they  were 
Hiduced  to  their  allegiance. 


PRUSSIA. 


1.  The  foundation  of  Prussian  greatness  was  laid  by  Fred- 
erick William^  surnamed  the  Great  Elector^  who  succeeded  to 
the  government  in  1640,  and  had  a  long  and  prosperous  reign. 
His  successor  Frederick,  a  weak  and  vain  prince,  was  raised 
to  the  rank,  and  received  the  title,  of  king,  in  1701. 

2.  Frederick  II.,  surnamed  the  Great,  after  suffering  much 
hard  treatment  from  his  father,  ascended  the  throne  in  1740 ; 
and,  being  ambitious  of  conquest  and  military  glory,  he  imme- 
diately invaded  Silesia,  with  a  fine  army,  which  had  been  left 
to  him  by  the  late  king,  and  was  so  successful  as  to  obtain  the 
cession  of  that  valuable  province. 

3.  In  1756,  Frederick  published  a  declaration  of  war  against 
Maria  Theresa,  Empress  of  Germany,  who  was  aided  by  the 
French  and  Russians.  The  contest,  which  was  carried  on  with 
great  spirit  on  both  sides,  and  was  signalized  by  many  hard- 
fought  and  bloody  battles,  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of 
Hubertsherg,  in  1763  :  "  and  thus,  after  a  seven  years'  sangui- 
nary struggle,  to  which  his  unprincipled  projects  had  given 
rise,  and  in  which,  independent  of  other  sufferers,  more  than 
half  a  million  of  combatants  had  fallen  in  the  field,  everything 
was  replaced  on  its  ancient  footing,  and  the  only  gainful  result 
was  simply  this,  that  Frederick  of  Prussia  had  been  furnished 
with  an  opportunity  of  proving  himself  a  consummate  com- 
mander, animated  by  an  unconquerable  spirit  of  military  her- 
oism, and  endued  with  one  of  the  coolest  heads  and  hardest 
hearts  in  Christendom." 

4.  Frederick  afterwards  applied  himself  to  the  internal  im- 
provement of  his  kingdom  ;  rebuilt  towns,  encouraged  agricul- 
ture, manufactures,  and  commerce.  In  the  first  partition  of 
Poland,  he  was  the  prime  mover  and  the  principal  agent.  Ho 
is  esteemed  one  of  the  greatest  commanders  of  modern  times, 
and  was,  perhaps,  the  most  indefatigable  sovereign  that  ever 


EUROrEAN   STATES.  243 

existed.  lie  was  fond  of  literature,  and  possessed  extensive 
literary  acquirements,  and  considerable  merit  as  an  author ; 
but  he  was  despotic  in  his  disposition,  and  had  little  sense  of 
justice  or  humanity. 

5.  In  the  European  war  which  followed  the  French  revolu- 
tion, Frederick  William  III.  suffered  a  great  defeat  by  the 
French,  under  Bonaparte,  at  Jena^  in  1806  ;  and  at  the  peace 
of  Tilsit,  in  1807,  he  lost  nearly  one  half  of  his  territories. 
In  1813,  he  joined  the  coalition  against  France,  and  his  army, 
imder  Bhtcher,  contributed  a  powerful  aid  in  the  overthrow  of 
Bonaparte  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo ;  and  by  the  treaty  of 
Vienna,  in  1815,  he  gained  a  large  accession  of  territory. 
Since  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  the  condition  of  Prussia  has  been 
in  various  respects  much  improved,  especially  in  regard  to 
education ;  and  it  is  now  one  .of  the  best  educated  states  in 
Europe. 

6.  In  1840,  Frederick  William  III.  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Frederick  William  IV.,  whose  reign,  especially  during  the 
years  1848  and  1849,  has  been  characterized  by  political  agi- 
tations and  convulsions.  Earnest  and  repeated  demands  were 
made  by  the  people  for  a  more  liberal  form  of  government , 
and,  in  1848,  a  new  constitution  was  proclaimed,  which  guar- 
antees political  and  religious  liberty,  the  freedom  of  the  press, 
the  abolition  of  all  aristocratic  privileges,  and  a  legislative  body 
oi  two  houses. 


RUSSIA. 


1.  The  importance  of  Russia,  which  is  now  one  of  the  most 
powerful  sovereignties  of  Europe,  is  of  recent  origin.  The 
foundation  of  its  greatness  was  laid  by  Peter  the  Great,  who 
reigned  from  1696  to  1725,  and  who  was  one  of  the  most  ex- 
traordinary princes  that  ever  appeared.  He  joined  in  a  coali- 
tion against  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  and,  after  suffering  some 
defeats,  gained  the  great  battle  of  Poltava  (1709),  and  en- 
larged and  strengthened  his  empire. 

2.  Catharine  II.,  who  obtained  the  sceptre,  in  1762,  by  the 
dethronement  and  murder  of  her  husband,  Peter  III,  had  a 
long  and  splendid  reign.  She  displayed  extraordinary  talents 
for  government ;  carried  on  the  system  of  improvement  which 
had  been  begun  by  Peter  the  Great ;  employed  able  ministers 
and  generals,  among  the  most  celebrated  of  whom  were  «Sm- 
warrow  and  Potemkin ;  and  enlarged  her  empire  by  the  ad- 


244  EUROI'EAN   STATES. 

dition  of  a  part  of  Poland,  the  Crimea,  and  other  territories ; 
—  but  her  public  character  was  stained  by  unprincipled  am- 
bition, profound  dissimulation,  and  disregard  to  justice ;  and 
her  private  character  was  extremely  licentious. 

3.  Catharine  was  succeeded,  in  1796,  by  her  son  Paul,  who, 
after  a  short  and  distracted  reign,  was  assassinated  in  1801, 
and  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander,  a  popular  and  prosperous 
sovereign,  during  whose  reign  the  power  and  dominions  of 
Russia  were  extended,  and  objects  of  public  improvement  pro- 
moted. In  1812,  Bonaparte  made  his  disastrous  invasion  of 
Russia,  and  here  met  with  the  first  effectual  check  to  his  career 
of  victory  and  conquest. 

4.  In  1825,  Alexander  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Nich- 
olas, the  present  emperor,  whose  reign  has  been  distinguished 
for  the  wars  carried  on  against  the  Turks,  Persians,  Circas- 
sians, Poles,  and  Hungarians.  The  war  against  Turkey  was 
declared  in  April,  1828,  and  the  Russian  army  soon  after  in- 
vaded the  Turkish  dominions,  took  Brailow,  Varna,  and  vari- 
ous other  important  posts.  During  the  campaign  of  1829,  the 
Russians,  commanded  by  Count  Diehilsch,  after  having  taken 
Silistria  and  other  places,  crossed  the  Balkan  mountains,  took 
the  city  of  Adrianople,  and  compelled  the  Turks  to  accede  to 
their  conditions  of  peace ;  and  in  September,  1829,  a  treaty 
was  signed  at  Adrianople. 

5.  In  1830,  a  general  insurrection  of  the  Poles,  who  were 
goaded  and  oppressed  by  the  tyranny  of  their  viceroy,  the 
Grand-Duke  Constantine,  was  crushed,  by  the  capture  of  War- 
saw, in  1831.  Many  thousand  Poles  were  banished  to  Siberia  ; 
the  kingdom  of  Poland  was  incorporated  with  Russia,  and  gov- 
erned as  a  conquered  province. 

6.  In  1848,  the  Emperor  of  Russia  sent  a  powerful  army  to 
assist  the  Emperor  of  Austria  to  put  down  the  insurrection  of 
the  Hungarians.  Russia  is  a  powerful  military  despotism,  with 
a  standing  army  of  800,000,  a  most  formidable  enemy  to  free 
government. 


ROME. 

1.  The  temporal  power  of  the  pope  [^StepTien  77.]  com 
menced  in  755,  and  it  attained  its  zenith  in  the  1 1th  century, 
during  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  VII.  [Hildebrar.d],  who  as- 
sumed authority  over  kings  and  potentates. 

2.  The  first  half  of  the  16th  century  is  a  memorable  era  in 


EUROPEAN  STATES.  245 

the  history  of  the  papacy.  Pope  Julius  II.,  the  projector  of 
the  League  of  Cambray,  was  distinguished  as  a  statesman  and 
a  warrior ;  and  his  successor,  Leo  X.,  the  son  of  the  famous 
Lorenzo  de  Medici,  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning.  During 
his  pontificate,  the  Reformation  was  begun  by  Luther,  in  1517. 
Since  that  event,  the  power  of  tlie  Roman  pontiff  has  been 
greatly  diminished. 

3.  In  1809,  Bonaparte  united  the  Ecclesiastical  States  to  the 
French  empire,  and  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  was  for 
a  while  suspended  ;  but,  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  he  was  re- 
instated in  nearly  all  his  former  possessions. 

4.  The  Roman  government  has  long  been  one  of  the  most 
despotic  in  Europe.  In  1846,  Pius  IX.  was  elected  pope  ;  and 
he  soon  manifested  a  disposition  to  promote  reform,  and  to 
grant  to  his  subjects  a  more  liberal  government  than  they  had 
before  enjoyed ;  and  he  was  for  a  time  highly  popular. 

5.  But  the  revolution  in  France,  and  the  political  movements 
in  other  parts  of  Europe,  in  1848,  were  soon  felt  at  Rome,  and 
the  people  made  more  demands  on  the  pope  than  he  was  dis- 
posed to  grant.  At  length  they  deposed  him  from  his  temporal 
power,  and  established  a  republican  government.  Pope  Pius, 
disguised  as  a  servant,  fled  to  Gaeta,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

6.  The  French  government  sent  an  army,  which,  after  a  se- 
vere bombardment,  entered  Rome  on  the  3d  of  July,  1849,  put 
down  the  republican  government,  and  prepared  the  way  for 
the  pope  to  return,  and  be  reinstated  in  his  former  authority. 


TURKEY. 


1.  The  Turks  are  a  Tartar  nation,  originally  from  Asia. 
The  first  notice  of  them  in  history  is  about  the  year  800, 
when,  issuing  from  an  obscure  retreat,  they  took  possession 
of  a  part  of  Armenia,  called,  from  them,  Turcomania.  Their 
dominions,  divided  for  some  time  into  petty  states,  were  united 
under  Otiima?!.  Ottoman,  or  Osma7i,  who  assumed  the  title  of  sul- 
tan, and  established  his  empire  at  Prusa,  in  Bithynia,  in  1298. 

2.  In  1360,  the  most  of  Thrace  was  conquered  by  them 
under  Amurath  /.,  who  made  Adrianople  the  seat  of  his  gov- 
ernment ;  his  successor,  Bajazet,  conquered  most  of  the  East- 
ern or  Greek  empire  ;  and,  in  1453,  Mahomet  II.  took  C&n- 
stantinoplc,  which  has  ever  since  continued  to  be  ihc  seat  of 
the  Ottoman  or  Turkish  empire. 

21  * 


246  EUROPEAN  STATES. 

3.  The  Turks  afterwards  widely  extended  their  empire  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  gained  possession  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  countries  most  celebrated  in  ancient  history.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Sclim  I.,  Syria  and  Egypt  were  conquered. 
The  reign  of  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  wliich  began  in  1520, 
was  more  illustrious  than  that  of  any  other  of  the  sultans.  He 
took  the  island  of  Rhodes  from  the  Knights  of  St.  Joim,  be- 
sieged Vienna,  made  the  King  of  Hungary  his  tributary,  re- 
duced Bagdad,  conquered  the  whole  of  Assyria,  Mesopotamia, 
and  Tunis,  and  established  excellent  laws  in  his  dominions. 

4.  Since  the  reign  of  Solyman,  tlie  Turks  have  been  engaged 
in  various  sanguinary  wars,  particularly  with  the  Austrians, 
Russians,  and  also  with  the  Persians  under  Kouli-Khan. 

5.  The  Turkish  power  has  lately  been  much  weakened,  in 
consequence  of  the  revolt  of  the  Greeks,  and  also  of  the  ca- 
lamitous war  with  Russia,  which  was  terminated  by  the  peace 
of  Adrianople,  in  1829. 

6.  The  Greeks  commenced  an  open  revolt  in  1821.  After 
a  war  had  been  for  a  considerable  time  carried  on,  with  savage 
ferocity,  between  them  and  the  Turks,  several  European  na- 
tions interposed  in  their  favor;  and,  in  1827,  the  combined 
fleets  of  England,  France,  and  Russia,  almost  annihilated  the 
Turkish  naval  force  in  the  battle  of  Navarino.  In  1828,  the 
Morea,  and  a  part  of  the  Greek  islands,  being  liberated  from 
Turkish  thraldom,  w^ere  formed  into  an  independent  govern- 
ment, under  Count  Capo  cflstria  as  president ;  and,  in  1832, 
they  were  erected  into  a  kingdom,  and  Otlio,  son  of  the  late 
King  of  Bavaria,  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  the  kingdom  of 
Greece. 


EUROPEAiJ  STATES. 


247 


SovEEEiGNS  OP  Gekmany,  Spain,  Sweden,  Prussia,  and  Husbia, 

Since  the  Beginning  of  the  Fifteenth  Century. 

A.  D. 

Germanv. 

Spain. 

Sweden. 

Prussia. 

Russia. 

1400 

Emperors. 

Kings. 

Kings. 

Electors. 

Czars. 

mh 

y3  Maximilian 
I. 

79  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella 

1500 

I'J  Charles  V. 

4  Philip  and 

23  Guslavus 

•■)S  Ferdinand  I. 

Joanna 

Vasa 

35  Joachim  11. 

38  John  Basil 

01  Maximilian 

16  Charles  I. 

60  Eric  XIV. 

16lh 

II. 

56  Philip  II. 

&3  John  III. 

72  John  George  !84  Theodore      | 

rC  Rodolph  II. 

92  Sigisraund 

93  Joachim 

97  Boris  Godu- 

1600 

03  Philip  III. 

99  Charles  IX. 

Frederick 

now 

5  Theodore 

12  Matthias 

11  Gustavus 

8  Sigismund 

6  Zuski 

lU  Ferdinand 

21  Philip  IV. 

Adolphus 

19  George Wm. 

13  Michael 

II. 

32  Christina  , 

40  Frederick 

Theodore 

17  th 

37  Ferdinand 

54  Cliarles  X. 

Wm. 

45  Alexis 

UI. 

GO  Charles  XI. 

"6  Tlieodore 

53  Leopold 

65  Charlea  U. 

97  Charles  Xn. 

88  Frederick 

m. 

82  John 

Emperors. 
96  Peter  I. 

1700 

Philip  V. 

Kings. 

5  Joseph  I. 

18  Ulrica  Eleo- 

1  Frederick  I. 

25  Catherine 

U  Charles  VI. 

nora 

13  Frederick 

27  Peter  II. 

21  Louis 

41  Frederick 

Will.  L 

30  Anne 

42  Charlea  VII. 

46  Ferdinand 

51  Adolphus 

40  Frederick 

40  John 

Kth 

4.')  Francis  I. 

VI. 

Frederick 

II. 

41  Elizabeth 

G5  Joseph  II. 

59  Charles  III. 

71  Gustavus 

86  Frederick 

62  Peter  III. 

III. 

Wm.  II. 

62  Catherine 

00  Leopold  II. 

S3  Cliarles  PV. 

92  Gustavus 

97  Frederick 

11. 

1800 

J2  Francis  II. 

IV. 

Wm.  III. 

96  Paul 

Austria. 

8  Ferdinand 

9  Charles 

1  Alexander 

6  Francis 

VII. 

XIU. 

30  IsabeUa  II. 

18  Charles 

25  Nicholaa 

I9tfi 

35  Ferdinand 

XIV. 

40  Frederick 

IS  Francis  Jo- 

(Hernadotte) 

Wm.  IV. 

seph 

44  Oscar 

1 

Germany.  —  Germany  formed  a  part  of  the  Empire  of  the  TFes^,  under 
Charlemagne,  in  800.  In  887,  the  imperial  dignity  was  tran.sfciTcd  to  Ger- 
many, which  continued  to  retain  the  title  of  Empire  till  180(j,  when  it  was 
dissolved.  Francis  II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  assumed,  in  1 804,  the  title  of 
Emperor  oi  Austria ;  and  this  title  is  retained  by  his  successors. 

Spain.  —  Ferdinand  II.,  who  had  previously  married  Isabella,  queen  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Arragon  in  1479,  and  Spain, 
at  that  time,  became  united  into  one  monarchy. 

Sweden.  —  Gustavus  Vasa,  who  was  descended  from  the  ancient  kings 
of  Sweden,  was,  after  a  revolution,  proclaimed  king.  In  1818,  BernadoUe, 
a  French  marshal,  was  raised  to  tlie  throne,  by  the  title  of  Charles  XIV. 

Prussia.  —  Prussia  was  erected  into  an  electorate  in  1415,  and  into  a 
kingdom  in  1701. 

Russia.  —  The  sovereigns  were  formerly  styled  czars ;  and  the  same 
title  is  still  often  applied  to  them.  Peter  the  Great,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  169G,  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor. 


248 


EUROPEAN  STATES. 


Names  distinguished  in  Italian,  Fkench,  Spanish,  German,   | 

&C.,  LiTEHATURE. 

A.  D. 

Italian. 

French. 

"3 

Spanish  and 
Portuguese. 

German,  Dutch.'g 
&c.           ^ 

1300 

*Dante 

21 

*Lobeira 

25 

Hth. 

*Petrarch 
Boccaccio 

74 
75 

W.  Durand 
W.  Occam 

33 

47 

Juan  Manuel 

62 

1400 

§Poggio 

59 

§Froisaart 

2 

*AyaIa 

7 

John  Huss 

15 

jEneas  Sylv. 

64 

Jo/in  Gerson 

29 

*Villena 

31 

Guttenberg 

68 

I5th 

*Pulci 

87 

♦Chartier 

58 

*Juan  de  Mena 

56 

Th.  d  Kempis 

71 

Mirandola 

94 

*L.  de  Mendoza  58 

Regiomontanus  76 1 

1500 



tRAPHAEL 

20 

§P.  de  Cominea 

9 

XiTtienes 

17 

Reuchlin 

22 

tLoPB  DE  Vinci  20 

Budceus 

40 

*Garcilas30 

36 

tAlb.  Durer 

2S 

§Machiavei, 

28 

Bucer 

51 

*Boscan 

43 

Zuinglius 

31 

♦Ariosto 

33 

Rabelais 

53 

Loyola 

56 

Erasmus 

36 

tCorreggio 

31 

J.  C.  Scaliger 

58 

*Saade  Miranda  58 

Paracelsus 

41 

161/1 

SGuicciardini 

40 

R.  Stephens 

59 

*Montemayor 

61 

Copernicus 

43 

§Bembo 

47 

Castalio 

63 

*Camoens 

79 

LUTHER 

46, 

tM.  Angelo 

&4 

CALVIN 

&1 

fMorales 

86 

tHolbein 

54 

fTitian 

76 

Ramus 

72 

tVargas 

90 

Sleidan 

56 

PaUadio 

80 

Montaigne 

92 

*Luis  de  Leon 

91 

Melancthon 

60 

1600 

*Tasso 

95 

H.  Stephens 

98 

*Ercilla 

Mercator 

94 

*Guarini 

13 

Beza 

5 

*Argensola 

13 

Tycho  Brahe 

1 

BellarmiTie 

21 

§Thuanua 

17 

Cervantes 

16 

Arminitis 

19 

^Father  Paxil 

23 

*Malherbe 

28 

§Mariana 

24 

Bustorf 

21 

5Davila 

31 

Jansenitia 

38 

§Herrera 

25 

Kepler 

31 

*Ta3soni 

35 

Descartes 

50 

*G6ngora 

27 

fRubens 

41 

Galileo 

42 

Gaasendi 

55 

*Lope  de  Vega 

35 

tVandyck 

41 

I7t/i 

tGuido 

42 

Pascal 

62 

*Quevedo 

45 

Episcopitts 

43 

%Benteeoglio 

44 

tPoussin 

65 

tVelazquez 

60 

Grotius 

45 

Torricelli 

47 

♦MOLIERE 

73 

*Calderon 

67 

tRembrandt 

68 

L.  Soci?iu3 

62 

tClaude  Lor. 

82 

♦Villegas 

69 

Spinoza 

77 

fBernini 

80 

*CORNEILLB 

84 

tMuriUo 

85 

Guericke 

86 

Borromeo 

&1 

*La  Fontaine 

95 

SSolia 

86 

Puffendorf 

94 

Malpighi 

94 

*Racine 

99 

Molinoa 

96 

Huyghens 

95 

1700 

F.  Socinus 

4 

%Bossuet 

4 

*Candamo 

4 

Leibnitz 

16 

Cassini 

12 

§Bayle 

6 

§Ferreraa 

35 

VitTtvga 

22 

tMaratli 

13 

*BoiLEAU 

11 

*Ereiceyra 

44 

Stahl 

31 

Gravina 

18 

*Fenelon 

15 

*Montiano 

53 

Le  Clerc 

36 

iMuratoTt 

50 

Massillon 

42 

Luzan 

&1 

Boerhaave 

38 

*Maffei 

55 

Le  Sage 

47 

Moratin 

80 

Bemouilli 

48 

13th 

Goldoni 

72 

Monteaquieu 

65 

*Huerta 

87 

Wolff 

54 

♦JVIetastasio 

82 

*V0LTAIRE 

78 

*IgIesia3 

91 

iMosheim 

55 

Boscovitch 

87 

Rousseau 

78 

*Yriarte 

91 

SwedenboTg 

72 

STiraboschi 

94 

D'AIemberl 

83 

Gonzalez 

94 

Haller 

77 

Beccaria 

95 

Buffon 

88 

UUoa 

95 

LlNN^US 

78 

Galvani 

93 

Condorcet 

&4 

♦Forner 

97 

Leasing 

81 

Spallanzani 

99 

Lavoisier 

94 

Cruz  y  Cano 

Euler 

83 

1800 

*Alfieri 

3 

Fourcroy 

9 

*Cienfuegoa 

9 

Lavater 

1 

§Denina 

13 

La  Grange 

13 

Jovellanos 

11 

♦Klopstock 

3 

Canova 

22 

De  Stael 

17 

3Ielendez 

17 

Kant 

4 

19.-A 

Volta 

27 

La  Placb 

27 

§Llorent9 

23 

*SchiUcr 

5 

♦Foscolo 

27 

Champollion 

32 

Moratin 

28 

♦Wieland 

13 

*Monti 

28 

CUVIEB 

32 

Navarrete 

*Goethe 

32 

§Botia 

37 

Chateaubriand 

43  Escoiquiz 

Berzelius 

48 

*  Poets :  t  Painters :  5  Historians :  those  in  Italics  Divines. 


EUROPEAN   STATES.  249 


Remarks  on  the  preceding  Table. 

Italy.  In  the  revival  of  leaniinp  in  modern  times,  Italy  haa  the  honor 
of  having  taken  the  lead.  The  14th  century  was  illustrated  by  the  cele- 
brated jwets,  Dante  and  Petrarch ;  and  by  Boccaccio,  an  eminent  prose 
WTitcr;  and,  in  tlie  15th  and  IGth  centuries,  Italian  genius  in  literature 
and  the  line  arts  shone  forth  with  great  lustre,  under  the  liberal  patron- 
age of  the  wealthy  liouses  of  Medici  and  Esle.  This  period  was  illustrated 
by  the  ])octs,  Ariosto  and  Tasso ;  by  the  artists,  Jiaphael,  Da  Vinci,  Michad 
Aw/e/n,  &c. ;  by  the  historians,  Macchiavel,  Guicciardini,  and  many  other 
men  of  genius.     Of  the  Italian  astronomers,  the  most  eminent  is  Gulilco. 

France.  Literature  began  to  iiourish  in  France  in  the  early  part  of  tho 
)6th  century,  under  the  patronage  of  Francis  I.  Tliis  century  was  illus- 
trat(;d  by  the  names  of  Calvin,  Scaliger,  Strtphens,  Ramus,  Montairjne,  &c. 

The  most  brilliant  period  of  French  literature  was  during  the  long  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  and  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
centuries,  during  which  France  produced  more  men,  eminent  in  literature 
and  the  arts,  than  any  other  country,  some  of  whom  are  Pascal,  distin- 
guished for  genius  and  attainments  in  science ;  Molidre,  Corneille,  Racine, 
and  Boileau,  eminent  poets ;  Fcnelon,  author  of  the  Tclemachus ;  Bossuet, 
Bounhduiie,  and  Massillon,  eloquent  preachers. 

The  most  eminent  French  poet,  since  Eoileau,  is  Voltaire.  Some  of  Aie 
greatest  French  mathematicians  and  astronomers  are  Descartes,  Gassendi, 
D'Akmbert,  Condorcet,  La  Grange,  and  La  Place;  some  of  the  naturalists, 
Buffon  and  Cuvier. 

Spain.  The  principal  poetical  productions  of  Spain,  liefore  the  com- 
mencement of  the  1 6th  century,  were  the  romances  of  the  Cid,  a  renowned 
Spanish  hero.  Tiie  earliest  of  tlie  classical  school  of  Spanish  poets  are 
Garcilaso  and  Boscan;  the  most  eminent  dramatic  poets,  Lope  de  Vega  and 
Valderon ;  the  most  distinguished  name  in  Spanish  literature,  CervaiUes, 
author  of  Don  Quixote ;  the  most  eminent  historians,  Mariana,  Ilerrera, 
and  Stilis.  —  Camocns,  the  author  of  the  Lusiad,  is  the  most  distinguished 
poet  of  Portugal. 

Gerniamj.  Germany  has  given  birth  to  a  succession  of  eminent  scliolars 
and  ))hilosophers  since  the  Reformation;  and  lias,  for  some  time  past,  pro- 
duced a  greater  number  of  learned  authors  than  any  other  country.  The 
Germans  claim  the  merit  of  many  important  inventions,  as  gunpowder, 
printing,  watches,  tlie  air-pump,  and  the  tclcsc'ope.  Copernicus  of  Thorn, 
near  the  borders  of  Germany,  was  the  restorer  of  the  true  system  of  the 
world.  Lntlu'.r  is  noted  as  the  great  reformer.  Some  o."  the  most  eminent 
(iernian  jihilosophcrs  and  men  of  science,  are  Kepler,  fjeibnitz,  Wolff,  and 
Kant;  some  of  tlie  most  eminent  poets,  Klopstock,  Schiller,  and  Goethe. 

Sweden.  Some  of  tlie  eminent  men  of  Sweden  may  be  mentioned, — 
Linnoius,  distinguished  for  his  attainments  in  botany ;  Suuidcnlorg,  in 
science  and  theology ;  Scheele  and  Berzelius,  in  chemistry. 

ILilhuid.  Holland  lias  produced  many  men  of  learning,  among  whom 
are  Er<tsniHs,  tlie  most  celebrated  scholar  of  his  age,  and  one  of  the  ]n-in- 
cipal  restorers  of  learning;  Grotim,  Vossius,  and  Le  Clerc,  eminent  schol- 
ars ;  ITuyglicns,  a  great  mathematician ;  and  Boerhaave,  a  distinguislied 
physician. 


AMERICA.  251 


AMERICA. 

Discovery  and  Settlement  :  —  Columhus^  Americus,  Cahot^ 
^c. ;  Conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru ;  —  Cortes^  Pizarro, 
Src.  —  From  A.  D.  1492  to  1600. 

1.  The  discovery  of  America  was  the  greatest  achievement 
of  the  kind  ever  performed  by  man  ;  and,  considered  in  con- 
nection with  its  consequences,  it  is  the  greatest  event  of  mod- 
ern times.  It  served  to  wake  up  an  unprecedented  spirit  of 
enterprise  ;  it  opened  new  sources  of  wealth,  and  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  on  commerce,  by  greatly  increasing  many 
important  articles  of  trade,  and  also  by  bringing  into  general 
use  many  others  before  unknown  :  by  leading  to  the  discovery 
of  the  rich  mines  of  this  continent,  it  has  caused  the  quantity  ' 
of  the  precious  metals  in  circulation  throughout  the  world  to 
be  exceedingly  augmented ;  it  also  gave  a  new  impulse  to 
colonization,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  advantages  of  civil- 
ized life,  and  the  blessings  of  Christianity,  to  be  extended  over 
vast  regions,  which  before  were  the  miserable  abodes  of  bar- 
barism and  pagan  idolatry. 

2.  The  man  to  whose  genius  and  enterprise  the  world  is  in- 
debted for  this  discovery  was  Christoj)her  Columbus^  of  Genoa. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  wool-comber ;  was  engaged  in  a  sea- 
faring life  from  the  age  of  14;  was  well  versed  in  the  sciences 
of  geometry,  astronomy,  and  geography ;  had  more  correct 
ideas  of  the  figure  of  the  earth  than  were  common  in  his  time  ; 
was  singularly  qualified  for  executing  an  arduous  expedition, 
being  well  skilled  in  naval  science,  fertile  in  expedients,  pa- 
tient and  persevering,  grave  and  dignified  in  his  deportment, 
master  of  himself,  and  skilful  in  the  government  of  other  men. 

3.  He  conceived,  that,  in  order  to  complete  the  balance  of 
the  terraqueous  globe,  another  continent  necessarily  existed, 
which  might  be  reached  by  sailing  to  the  west  from  Europe ; 
but  he  erroneously  connected  it  with  India.  Being  persuaded 
of  the  truth  of  his  theory,  his  adventurous  spirit  made  him 
eager  to  verify  it  by  experiment. 

4.  The  passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  not  being 
then  known,  the  merchandise  of  India  was,  in  order  to  be  con- 
veyed to  Europe,  brought  up  the  Red  Sea,  and  transported 
across  the  land  to  Alexandria.  To  find  a  passage  to  China 
and  the  East  Indies  by  sea,  had  long  been  an  object  of  investi- 
gation ;  and  it  was  in  quest  of  a  shorter  and  easier  route  by 
t^.e  west  that  Columbus  undertook  his  voyage  of  discovery. 


252  AMERICA. 

The  riches  of  the  East  were  the  bribe  and  inducement  which 
he  held  out  to  the  sovereign  or  llie  state  that  should  enable  him 
to  execute  his  design. 

5.  He  first  applied  for  assistance  to  his  countrymen,  the 
Genoese,  then  to  the  Portuguese,  then  to  Ferdinand  of  Spain, 
and  then,  by  means  of  his  brother  Bartholomew,  to  Henry  VII. 
of  England,  but  all  without  success  ;  and  he  had  the  mortifica- 
tion to  be  considered  a  visionary  projector.  At  length,  after 
seven  years  of  persevering  and  anxious  solicitation  and  con- 
temptuous neglect  in  Spain,  and  18  years  after  he  had  fin^t 
conceived  the  enterprise,  he  obtained  a  gleam  of  royal  favor 
from  Queen  Isabella.  By  her  means  he  was  provided  with 
three  small  vessels,  victualled  for  twelve  months,  and  having 
on  board  90  men.  The  expense  of  building  and  supplying 
the  whole  was  only  about  ^"4,000.  He  was  appointed  ad- 
miral of  all  the  seas  which  he  should  explore,  and  governor 
of  all  the  islands  and  countries  which  he  should  discover  and 
subdue. 

6.  With  the  small  and  ill-appointed  fleet  which  had  been 
furnished,  he  sailed  from  Palos,  in  Spain,  on  the  3d  of  August, 
1492.  He  steered  directly  for  the  Canary  islands,  where,  hav- 
ing refitted,  he  proceeded  on  his  voyage,  on  the  6th  of  Septem- 
ber, passing  into  seas  which  no  vessel  had  been  known  to  have 
ever  explored,  and  without  a  chart  to  direct  his  course. 

7.  He  had  soon  occasion  to  make  use  of  all  his  talents  and 
address.  After  having  sailed  about  200  leagues  from  the 
Canaries,  the  variation  of  the  magnetic  needle  from  its  direc- 
tion to  the  polar  star,  a  phenomenon  which  had  never  before 
been  observed,  excited  alarm  in  his  own  breast,  and  filled  the 
sailors  with  terror  and  dismay  to  such  a  degree,  that  they  were 
ready  to  rise  in  open  mutiny.  But,  with  great  presence  of 
mind,  he  made  a  solution  of  the  phenomenon,  which  served  to 
silence  the  murmurs  of  his  crew,  though  it  was  unsatisfactory 
to  himself.  Having  pursued  their  course  for  30  days  longer, 
without  discovering  land,  the  murmurs  of  the  crew  again  broke 
out,  and  with  increased  violence.  Columbus  made  use  of  en- 
couragement and  exhortation ;  but,  according  to  Oviedo,  was 
compelled  to  yield  so  far  to  their  importunity  as  to  propose, 
that  if,  after  proceeding  three  days  more,  no  land  were  dis- 
covered, he  would  instantly  return. 

8.  Strong  indications  of  land  had  already  begun  to  appear ; 
and,  in  the  night  of  the  11th  of  October,  Columbus,  who  was 
standing  on  the  forecastle,  discovered  a  light  ahead.  The 
morning  displayed  the  joyful  sight  of  land !  A  hymn  of 
thanksgiving  to  Almighty  God  was  sung  by  the  whole  crew, 
who  immediately  united  in  the  most  ardent  expressions  of  ad« 


AMERICA.  253 

miration  for  their  commander,  with  acknowledgments  of  their 
rashness  and  disobedience. 

9.  The  island  first  discovered  was  Si.  Salvador,  or  Cat 
Island,  one  of  the  Bahamas.  He  afterwards  discovered  Cuha 
and  Haijli,  or  St.  Dovungo,  wliich  lie  named  Hispaniola,  on 
which  he  landed,  and  left  some  of  his  men  to  form  a  colony. 
In  conformity  with  the  theory  which  he  had  adopted,  he  con- 
nected these  islands  with  India,  believing  them  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  that  une.\j)lored  region ;  and,  as  they  had  been 
reached  by  a  western  passage,  they  were  denominated  the  West 
Indies.  And,  in  accordance  with  this  theory,  the  aborigines 
of  America,  from  the  time  of  the  first  discovery,  have  been 
designated  by  the  ajjpellation  of  Indians. 

10.  Having  obtained  a  quantity  of  gold  and  some  of  the  na- 
tives, he  set  sail  on  his  return  to  Spain.  During  the  voyage,  a 
violent  tempest  ai-ose,  which  lasted  15  days,  and  exposed  the 
fleet  to  extreme  danger  ;  and,  in  order  to  afl^ord  a  small  chance 
that  the  world  might  not  lose  the  benefit  of  his  discovery,  he 
had  the  presence  of  mind  to  write  a  short  account  of  his  voy- 
age, which  he  wrapped  in  an  oiled  cloth,  and  inclosed  in  a 
cake  of  wax ;  and,  putting  this  into  an  empty  cask,  he  com- 
mitted it  to  the  sea,  in  hopes  that  it  might  fall  into  the  hands 
of  some  fortunate  navigator,  or  be  cast  ashore.  But  the  storm 
happily  abated,  and  Columbus  entered  the  port  from  which  he 
had  sailed  about  seven  months  before,  amidst  the  acclamations 
and  wonder  of  the  multitude.  He  proceeded  immediately  to 
the  court,  where  he  was  received  with  respect  and  admiration. 

11.  Columbus  afterwards  made  a  second  and  a  thu'd  voyage, 
in  the  latter  of  which  he  discovered,  in  1498,  the  Continent  of 
South  America ;  but  his  successes  and  honors  did  not  fail  to 
excite  envy  and  intrigues  against  him  in  the  court  of  Spain. 
In  consequence  of  false  accusations,  he  was  deprived  of  the 
government  of  Hispaniola,  and  sent  home  in  chains.  The 
captain  of  the  vessel  which  carried  him,  impressed  with  the 
highest  veneration  for  his  captive,  and  feeling  the  deepest  re- 
gret for  the  indignity  which  he  suffered,  offered  to  release  him 
from  his  fetters.  "  No  !  "  said  Columbus,  in  a  burst  of  gener- 
ous indignation  ;  "I  wear  these  irons  in  consequence  of  an 
order  from  their  majesties,  the  rulers  of  Spain.  They  shall 
find  me  as  obedient  to  this  as  to  their  other  injunctions.  By 
their  command  I  have  been  confined  ;  and  their  command 
alone  shall  set  me  at  liberty."  « 

12.  But  he  never  forgot  the  unjust  and  shameful  treatment 
which  he  had  received.  Through  the  whole  of  his  after  life, 
he  carried  his  fetters  with  him,  as  a  memorial  of  the  ingrati- 
tude which  he  had  experienced.     He  hung  them  up  in  his 

22 


264  AMERICA. 

chamber,  and  gave  orders  that  they  should  be  buried  with  him 
in  his  grave. 

13.  Upon  the  arrival  of  Columbus  in  Spain,  a  prisoner  and 
in  fetters,  the  indignation  of  all  men  was  highly  excited  ;  and 
Ferdinand,  cold,  distant,  and  haughty  as  he  was,  felt  for  a  while 
the  emotions  of  shame.  But  after  detaining  him  for  a  long 
time,  in  a  fatiguing  and  vexatious  attendance,  he  appointed 
another  person  governor  of  Hispaniola  in  his  stead.  Such 
was  the  reward  which  the  great  discoverer  of  this  western 
world  received,  for  having  devised  and  carried  on  to  a  success- 
ful issue  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  daring  enterprises  that 
ever  entered  into  the  mind  of  man ;  and  such  is  the  account 
which  impartial  history  is  constrained  to  give  of  the  justice  and 
gratitude  of  kings  ! 

14.  Columbus,  intent  on  finding  a  passage  to  India  by  the 
west,  afterwards  made  a  fourth  voyage,  examined  the  coast  of 
Darien,  and  was  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  the  island  of 
Jamaica.  He  here  obtained,  for  a  time,  an  astonishing  com- 
mand over  the  Indians,  by  predicting  an  eclipse  of  the  moon. 
After  having  endured  a  great  variety  of  suffering  and  calamity, 
from  the  mutiny  and  treachery  of  his  men,  from  conflicts  with 
the  natives,  from  scarcity  of  provisions,  and  from  sickness,  in 
this  his  last  and  most  disastrous  expedition,  he  returned  to 
Spain;  and,  worn  out  with  fatigue,  disappointment,  and  sor- 
row, he  died  at  Valladolid,  in  1506,  at  about  the  age  of  70 
years.  His  funeral,  by  the  order  of  Philip  II.,  who  had  recently 
ascended  the  throne,  was  extremely  magnificent,  and  the  fol- 
lowing inscription  was  engraved  on  his  tomb  :  —  "  To  Castile 
and  Leon,  Columbus  has  given  a  new  world." 

15.  But  this  great  man  was  unjustly  deprived  of  the  honor 
of  giving  his  name  to  this  continent  by  Americus  Vespucius,  a 
native  of  Florence,  who  accompanied  Ojeda  in  a  voyage,  in 
1499,  and  discovered  a  part  of  the  coast  of  South  America, 
the  next  year  after  the  continent  had  been  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus. He  wrote  an  account  of  this  voyage,  claiming  the 
honor  of  being  the  first  discoverer  of  the  viain  land  ;  and  from 
n  m  the  continent  has  been  named  America.  But  this  act  of 
injustice,  how  much  soever  it  is  to  be  regretted,  has  done  no 
real  injury  to  the  reputation  of  the  one,  nor  benefit  to  that  of 
the  other ;  our  feelings  rather  incline  us  to  enhance  the  merit 
of  Columbus,  as  one  whose  noble  achievement  has  been  ill  re- 
quited, and  to  detract  from  that  of  Americus,  as  one  who  would 
usurp  the  honors  of  another. 

16.  In  1497,  Vasco  de  Gama,  a  Portuguese,  first  doubled  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  sailed  to  India.  By  this,  he  effected 
what  was  a  leading  object  with  Columbus  in  his  enterprise. 


AMERICA.  255 

and  what  had  been,  during  the  preceding  century,  an  object 
of  investigation,  namely,  the  discovery  of  a  more  expeditious 
and  convenient  passage  to  the  East  Indies  than  through  Egypt. 
In  1519,  Magellan,  a  Portuguese  in  the  service  of  Spain, 
passed  the  straits  which  bear  his  name,  and  launched  into  the 
vast  ocean,  which  he  called  Pacific ;  but  he  lost  his  life  at  one 
of  the  Philippine  islands ;  yet  his  officers  proceeded  on  the 
voyage,  and  accomplished,  for  the  first  time,  the  circuinnavi- 
galion  of  the  glohe. 

17.  JoJm  Cahot,  a  Venetian  by  birtli,  but  an  inhabitant  of 
Bristol,  in  England,  received  a  commission  from  Henry  VII., 
and  sailed  in  the  beginning  of  May,  1497,  on  a  voyage  of  dis- 
covery, accompanied  by  his  son,  Sebastian  Cahot ;  and  one  or 
both  of  them  discovered  the  continent  of  North  America,  the 
year  before  the  main  land  of  South  America  had  been  discov- 
ered by  Columbus,  and  two  years  before  it  had  been  seen  by 
Americus. 

18.  The  land  first  seen  was  called  Prima  Vista,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  part  of  Newfoundland.  They  pro- 
ceeded further  to  the  north,  in  search  of  a  passage  to  India ; 
but  finding  no  appearance  of  one,  they  tacked  about,  and 
sailed  as  far  as  Florida.  They  erected  crosses  along  the 
coast,  and  took  a  formal  possession  of  the  country  in  behalf 
of  the  crown  of  England.  This  was  the  foundation  of  the 
English  claim  to  North  America,  though  no  settlements  were 
formed  till  many  years  after. 

19.  Several  years  passed  away,  from  the  time  of  the  first 
discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  before  any  considerable 
settlement  was  formed  by  the  Spaniards,  on  the  continent.  In 
1519,  Fernando  Cortes,  with  a  fleet  of  eleven  small  vessels, 
having  on  board  663  men,  sailed  from  Cuba  for  the  invasion 
of  Mexico,  and  landed  at  Vera  Cruz.  As  fire-arms  were  not 
yet  in  general  use,  only  13  of  the  men  had  muskets,  the  rest 
being  armed  with  cross-bows,  swords,  and  speai's.  Cortes  had 
also  10  small  field-pieces,  and  16  horses,  —  the  first  of  these 
animals  ever  seen  in  that  country. 

20.  Cortes  proceeded  first  to  Tlascala,  the  capital  of  a  small 
republic,  hostile  to  Mexico ;  and  here  he  induced  6,000  war- 
riors to  join  him,  and  accompany  him  to  the  city  of  Mexico. 
On  his  arrival,  he  was  courteously  received  by  Montezuma,  the 
Mexican  emperor.  Soon  after,  Cortes  perfidiously  seized  Mon- 
tezuma in  his  palace,  and  carried  him  to  his  own  quarters,  where 
he  was  kept  more  than  six  months  as  a  prisoner.  At  length, 
the  Mexicans,  exasperated  by  the  cruelties  of  the  Spaniards, 
took  measures  to  avenge  themselves  ;  and,  in  the  contest  which 
followed,  Montezuma  was  wounded  by  his  own  subjects,  and 


256  AMERICA. 

soon  afterwards  died.  The  Spaniards,  after  a  sanguinary 
struggle,  were  driven  from  the  city,  with  the  loss  of  half  their 
men  and  all  their  muskets  and  artillery. 

21.  Cortes,  with  the  shattered  remnant  of  his  army,  retreated 
to  Tlascala,  pursued  by  an  immense  host  of  Mexicans,  whom 
he  routed  in  the  great  battle  of  Otumba.  At  Tlascala,  he  re- 
ceived some  reinforcements  of  Spaniards,  and  raised  a  large 
army  of  Indians  from  the  nations  hostile  to  the  Mexicans.  At 
the  head  of  these  forces,  he  marched  against  Mexico,  where 
Guatimozin,  a  nephew  of  Montezuma,  had  been  elected  em- 
peror ;  and,  after  a  siege  of  nearly  three  months,  he  captured 
the  city,  and  seized  Guatimozin,  who  was  treated  with  the 
greatest  cruelty,  and  finally  put  to  death.  Thus  was  the  great 
empire  of  Mexico  overthrown  by  a  handful  of  daring  and  un- 
principled adventurers. 

22.  In  1518,  the  Spaniards  formed  a  settlement  at  Panama, 
on  the  west  side  of  the  gulf  of  Darien.  From  this  place 
several  attempts  were  made  to  explore  the  regions  of  South 
America  ;  and  hence  Pizarro  sailed  on  an  expedition,  in  1525, 
and  discovered  the  rich  and  flourishing  kingdom  of  Perti.  He 
afterwards  obtained  from  Charles  V.,  the  King  of  Spain,  a 
commission  as  governor  of  the  country,  and  a  military  force 
to  subdue  it;  and  for  this  purpose,  in  1531,  he  sailed  from 
Panama,  with  three  small  vessels  and  180  men. 

23.  With  this  little  band  he  invaded  the  country,  marched  to 
the  residence  of  the  inca,  or  king,  AtabaJipa,  and  having  in- 
vited him  to  a  friendly  intei-view,  and  attempted  to  persuade 
him  to  embrace  the  Christian  religion,  he  seized  him  as  a  pris- 
oner ;  and,  by  his  order,  his  men  fell  upon  the  defenceless  and 
unresisting  attendants  of  the  monarch,  and  slew  upwards  of 
4,000  of  them. 

24.  The  Peruvian  monarch,  in  order  to  procure  his  release, 
caused  the  room  in  which  he  was  confined,  which  was  22  feet 
by  17,  to  be  filled,  for  Pizarro,  with  vessels  of  gold  and  silver, 
as  high  as  he  could  reach.  The  treasure,  which  was  collected 
from  various  parts  of  the  empire,  amounted,  in  value,  to  up- 
wards of  ^1,500,000;  and  this  large  sum  was  divided  among 
the  conquerors.  But  the  perfidious  Spaniard  still  held  the  inca 
prisoner ;  and  Almagro  having  joined  Pizarro  with  a  reinforce- 
ment, they  brought  the  monarch  to  trial,  and,  on  a  charge  of 
being  a  usurper  and  an  idolater,  condemned  and  executed  him  ! 

25.  The  Spanish  chiefs  not  long  after  quarrelled  with  each 
other,  and  a  civil  war  ensued.  Almagro  was  taken  prisoner, 
condemned,  and  executed  ;  and,  soon  after,  Pizarro  was  assas- 
sinated. The  Indians  took  advantage  of  these  contentions, 
and,  under  their  new  inca,  Huanca  Capac,  rose  against  the 


AMERICA.  257 

Spaniards;  but  they  were  at  last  subdued  (1532),  and  Peru 
became  a  province  of  Spain. 

26.  At  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Spaniards,  the  Pe7'u- 
rians  and  Mexicans  had  made  considerable  progress  towards 
civilization,  much  more  than  the  rest  of  the  Indians.  They 
understood  the  arts  of  arcliitecture,  sculpture,  mining,  and 
working  the  precious  metals ;  cultivated  their  land,  were 
clothed,  and  had  a  regular  system  of  government,  and  a  code 
of  civil  and  religious  laws.  The  Peruvians  had  the  superiority 
in  cri'chitecture,  and  possessed  some  magnificent  palaces  and 
temples.  They  worshipped  the  sun  as  the  Supreme  Deity, 
and  their  religion  had  few  of  those  sanguinary  traits  which 
were  characteristic  of  that  of  the  Mexicans. 

27.  In  1524,  Francis  I.  of  France,  willing  to  share  a  part 
of  the  new  world  with  his  neighbors,  commissioned  Verrazano 
on  a  voyage  of  discovery.  This  navigator  explored  a  great 
])art  of  the  coast  of  North  America.  Ten  years  afterwards, 
James  Cartier  set  out  on  a  similar  expedition,  sailed  up  the 
gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  took  possession  of  the  country  in  behalf 
of  the  king,  and  styled  it  New  France ;  but  the  name  was 
afterwards  changed  to  Canada. 

28.  In  1581,  the  celebrated  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  under  a 
commission  from  Queen  Elizabeth,  to  discover,  occupy,  and 
govern  "  remote,  heathen,  and  barbarous  countries,"  not  pre- 
viously possessed  by  ariy  Christian  prince  or  people,  arrived  in 
America,  entered  Pamlico  Sound,  and  proceeded  to  Roanoke 
Island,  near  the  mouth  of  Albemarle  Sound,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  country.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  gave  such 
a  splendid  description  of  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  region, 
that  Eli?;abeth,  delighted  with  occupying  so  fine  a  territory, 
gave  it  the  name  of  Virginia,  as  a  memorial  that  this  happy 
discovery  was  made  during  the  reign  of  a  virgin  queen. 

29.  Several  attempts  were  made  to  form  settlements  in  Vir- 
ginia, by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Sir  Francis  Drake,  and  Sir 
Richard  Grcnville,  but  they  all  proved  unsuccessful ;  and  part 
of  the  colonists  were  carried  back  to  England,  part  of  them 
perished  by  disease,  and  part  were  destroyed  by  the  Indians. 

89.  It  was  the  practice  of  Europeans  to  take  possession  of 
the  parts  of  America  which  they  visited,  by  the  pretended 
right  of  discovery.  The  original  inhabitants  were  treated  as 
if  they  had  no  rights,  and  were  no  more  owners  of  the  soil 
than  the  beasts  of  the  forest.  This  example  was  set  by  Co- 
lumhus  himself.  He  landed  upon  St.  Salvador,  the  first  island 
discovered,  in  a  gorgeous  dress,  with  a  drawn  sword  in  hia 
22  * 


258  AMERICA. 

hand,  and  the  royal  standard  displayed,  and  took  possession  of 
the  island  for  the  crown  of  Castile  and  Leon  ;  and  in  con- 
formity to  this  practice,  it  was  inscribed  on  his  tomb,  that  to 
this  crown  he  "  had  given  a  new  world." 

31.  The  pope,  in  accordance  with  principles  that  were  acted 
upon  in  an  age  of  ignorance  and  superstition,  granted  to  the 
sovereigns  of  Spain  the  countries  discovered  by  their  subjects 
in  the  new  world.  The  propagation  of  Christianity  was  held 
out  as  the  chief  reason  for  taking  possession  cff  Ameiica ;  and 
the  promotion  of  a  religion  which  breathes  "  peace  on  earth 
and  good-will  towards  men,"  was  made  the  pretext  for  every 
species  of  injustice,  cruelty,  bloodshed,  and  slavery,  which  the 
defenceless  inhabitants  of  America  were  destined  to  experi- 
ence from  Cortes,  Pizarro,  and  other  unprincipled  invaders. 

32.  The  Spaniards  who  first  came  to  America  were  stim- 
ulated by  the  desire  and  expectation  of  finding  the  precious 
metals,  gold  and  silver.  So  powerful  was  this  passion  for  gold, 
that  the  first  adventurers  encountered  every  possible  hardship 
and  danger  in  search  of  it,  and  sacrificed  millions  of  the 
wretched  natives,  whom  they  compelled  to  work  in  the  mines. 
The  unfortunate  Indians  were  distributed,  like  cattle,  into  lots 
of  so  many  hundred  heads  each,  and  sold  to  the  colonists. 
The  Indians,  who  were  naturally  of  a  weak  constitution,  were 
rapidly  wasted  away  by  the  hard  service  to  which  they  were 
subjected.  So  great  was  the  mortality  among  them,  that  out 
of  60,000  Indians  who  were  in  the  isfknd  of  St.  Domingo,  in 
1508,  only  14,000  are  said  to  have  remained  in  1516 ;  and  it 
was  not  many  years  before  the  race  became  nearly  extinct  in 
most  of  the  islands. 

33.  This  cruelty  to  the  Indians  was  strongly  condemned  by 
Las  Casas,  and  other  benevolent  persons,  and  the  colonists 
soon  began  to  look  to  Africa  for  a  supply  of  laborers  in  their 
mines  and  on  their  plantations.  It  was  found  that  one  able- 
bodied  negro  could  do  as  much  work  as  four  Indians. 

34.  The  first  importation  of  negroes  from  Africa  to  the 
West  Indies  was  made,  in  1503,  by  the  Portuguese,  and  a 
larger  one  was  made  by  order  of  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  in  1511 ; 
since  that  time,  the  inhuman  traffic  in  African  slaves  has  been 
carried  on  by  most  of  the  European  nations  ;  nor  has  it  yet 
been  abandoned  by  Spain  and  Portugal,  the  two  European 
countries  which  were  the  first  to  begin  this  barbarous  traflfic 
and  which  seem  disposed  to  be  last  to  relinquish  it. 


UNITED  STATES. 

THE   UNITED   STATES.* 

SECTION   I. 

Sdllement  and  Early  History  of  the  Colonies  :  —  Virginia ; 
Neio  York ;  Colonics  of  New  England ;  Indian  Wars ; 
Maryland;  Pe7insylvania.  —  Fro?n  A.  D.  1607  to  1682. 

1.  The  vanity  of  nation^,  like  that  of  families,  inclines  them 
to  lay  claim  to  a  high  antiquity ;  and  the  obscurity  in  which 
their  early  history  is,  in  most  instances,  involved,  aflbrds  them 
an  opportunity  to  indulge  this  propensity.  But  with  regard  to 
the  United  States,  circumstances  are  dilferent.  The  vanity  of 
the  people  of  this  country  inclines  them  to  dwell  upon  their 
recent  origin  and  their  rapid  growth,  and  the  promise  which 
these  afford  of  future  greatness.  Of  all  independent  nations 
of  any  importance,  now  existing,  this  has  had  the  most  recent 
origin,  and  its  early  history  is  the  best  known ;  nor  do  the 
annals  of  the  world  afford  another  instance  of  a  nation  rising, 
in  so  short  a  space  of  time  from  its  first  settlement,  to  an  equal 
degree  of  power  and  freedom. 

2.  Various  circumstances  have  concurred  to  promote  the 
rapid  increase  in  population  and  wealth,  and  the  progress  of 
society,  which  have  been  witnessed  in  this  country.  The  first 
settlers  were  emigrants  from  countries  advanced  in  civilization, 
ruid  they  brought  with  them  the  arts  of  civilized  life.  A  great 
|)ortion  of  them  were  men  distinguished  for  intelligence  and 
enterprise,  and  were  strenuous  advocates  for  civil  and  religious 
]il)crty;  and,  at  the  first  foundation  of  their  settlements,  they 
paid  particular  attention  to  the  promotion  of  education.  A 
vast  field  of  enterprise  has  been  constantly  presented  before 
them,  with  ample  rewaixls  to  industry.  The  means  of  subsist- 
ence have  been  abundant  and  easily  obtained  ;  and  extensive 
tracts  of  fertile  and  unoccupied  lands,  suitable  for  new  settle- 
ments, have  always  been  procurable  on  moderate  terms.  Tho 
political  and  commercial  relations  of  the  inhabitants  have  con- 
nected them  with  the  most  enlightened  nations  in  the  world  ; 


*  Tho  national  existence  of  tlic  United  States,  properly  so  called,  com- 
menced July  4tk,  1776.  Before  that  period,  tho  inhabitants  were  in  a 
state  of  colonial. dependence  on  Great  Britain,  and  were  styled  the  Brit- 
ish Colonies  in  Jhnerira.  Louisiana,  which  was  formerly  a  French  col- 
ony, and  Florida,  formerly  a  Spanisii  one,  and  Texas,  J\'eio  Mexico,  and 
Califurniii,  all  of  which  iormerly  formed  a  part  of  Mexico,  have  since 
been  annexed  to  the  United  States. 


260  UNITED   STATES. 

and  have  afforded  them  the  means  of  being  acquainted  with 
the  progress  of  literature  and  science,  and  with  the  various 
improvements  in  tlie  arts  of  civilized  life. 

3.  The  colonization  of  this  country  originated  either  in  re- 
ligious persecution,  carried  on  in  England  against  the  Puri- 
tans and  other  denominations  of  Christians,  or  in  visionary 
schemes  of  adventurers,  who  set  out  for  the  new  world  in  quest 
of  settlements,  and  in  pursuit  of  gain.  It  was  the  former 
cause  which  peopled  the  colonies  of  Neio  England ;  and  it 
was  to  the  latter  that  the  colonies  of  Virginia  and  New  York 
owed  their  origin.  These  may  be  considered  as  the  original 
or  parent  colonies. 

4.  They  struggled  long  with  the  hardships  and  difficulties 
incident  to  all  new  establishments  on  barbarous  shores,  remote 
from  civilized  society,  and  from  the  means  of  procuring  aid  in 
supplying  their  wants,  and  in  protecting  themselves  against  the 
hostilities  to  which  they  were  exposed.  They  were,  at  times, 
reduced  to  great  extremities  by  sickness,  disease,  and  want, 
and  by  the  attacks  and  depredations  of  the  Indians,  insomuch 
that,  in  some  instances,  it  was  resolved  to  abandon  the  settle- 
ment of  the  country  as  impracticable.  All  these  impediments, 
however,  being  gradually  overcome  by  perseverance,  industry, 
and  enterprise,  the  colonies  at  last  began  to  flourish,  and  to  in- 
crease both  in  wealth  and  population. 

5.  The  first  grant  from  the  crown  of  England,  under  which 
effectual  settlements  were  made  in  North  America,  was  dated 
April  10,  1606.  By  this  charter,  all  the  country  in  America, 
between  lat.  34°  and  45°  N.,  was  called  Virginia.  But,  by 
this  charter,  two  companies  were  constituted  ;  one  called  the 
London  Company.,  the  other  the  Plymouth  Comjmny.  To  the 
former  was  assigned  the  territory  between  lat.  34°  and  41°  N., 
called  South  Virginia ;  to  the  latter,  the  part  of  the  territory 
lying  to  the  north,  called  North  Virginia. 

6.  Some  unsuccessful  attempts  to  form  a  settlement  in  Vir- 
ginia, before  this  charter  was  granted,  have  been  already  men- 
tioned. The  first  effectual  attempt  was  made  in  1607,  by  a 
company  of  105  adventurers,  who  came  in  a  vessel  com- 
manded by  Captain  Newport.  They  sailed  up  the  Powhatan 
or  James  River,  built  a  fort,  and  commenced  a  town,  which, 
in  honor  of  king  James,  they  called  Jamestown.  The  gov- 
ernment of  the  colony  was,  at  first,  administered  by  a  coun- 
cil of  seven  persons,  with  a  president  chosen  from  among  their 
number. 

7.  The  name  of  the  first  president  was  Wingfield ;  but  the 
most  distinguished  member  of  the  council  was  Captain  John 


UNITED  STATES.  261 

SmifJi,  who  was  the  second  year  chosen  presklent,  and  who 
lias  been  styled  the  Father  of  the  colony.  He  had  commanded 
a  company  of  cavalry  in  the  Austrian  army,  in  a  war  with  the 
Turks  ;  and  had  been  taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  Constantinople 
as  a  slave,  from  which  condition  he  had  extricated  hmiself. 
He  was  a  man  of  undaunted  courage,  romantic  disposition,  and 
an  ardent  spirit  of  enterprise  ;  and  to  his  superior  talents  the 
company  were  greatly  indebted  for  their  success. 

8.  The  colonists  were  soon  involved  in  contests  with  the 
Indians,  whose  hostilities  against  the  English  were  not  unpro- 
voked, as  they  had  been  previously  treated  by  them  with  cru- 
elty. In  1585,  Sir  Richard  Grenville  burnt  a  whole  Indian 
town,  and  destroyed  their  corn,  in  revenge  for  their  stealing  a 
silver  cup  ;  and  Mr.  Lane.,  the  leader  of  the  adventurers  left 
by  Sir  Richard,  slew  a  sachem,  and  killed  and  took  captive 
several  Indians. 

9.  The  year  in  which  the  settlement  was  commenced,  an 
accident  happened  to  Captain  S7nifh,  which  lent  to  his  history 
the  attraction  of  romance.  While  engaged  in  hunting,  he  was 
taken  prisoner  by  a  body  of  200  Indians ;  but  he  so  charmed 
them  by  his  arts  and  his  valor  that  they  released  him.  Soon 
afterwards,  he  was  again  taken  by  another  party  of  300,  who 
carried  him  in  triumph  before  Poiohatan,  the  greatest  chief  in 
the  region. 

10.  The  sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  upon  him ;  his 
head  was  placed  on  a  stone,  and  the  savages  were  about  to  beat 
out  his  brains,  when  Pocahontas.,  the  favorite  daughter  of  the 
chief,  who  was  only  about  twelve  years  of  age,  after  having  in 
vain  implored  mercy  for  him,  rushed  forward,  and,  placing  her 
head  upon  that  of  the  captive,  appeared  determined  to  share 
his  fate.     Powhatan  relented,  and  set  the  prisoner  free. 

11.  Two  years  afterwards  (lfi09),  Pocahontas  gave  infor- 
mation to  Captain  Smith  of  a  plot  formed  by  the  Indians  for 
the  destruction  of  the  colony,  which  was,  by  this  means,  pre- 
vented. This  extraordinary  Indian  female  was  afterwards 
married,  with  the  consent  of  her  father,  to  Mr.  Rolfe,  a  re- 
spectable young  planter.  Their  nuptials  were  celebrated  with 
great  pomp,  and  Pocahontas  was  highly  useful  in  preserving 
])eace  between  the  colonists  and  Indians.  She  accompanied 
her  husband  to  England  ;  was  instructed  in  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, and  baptized.  She  died  soon  after  her  return  to  Amer- 
ica, at  the  age  of  about  22,  leaving  one  son,  from  whom  are 
sprung  some  of  the  most  respectable  families  in  Virginia. 

12.  During  the  first  year,  the  colonists  suffered  severely  by 
the  scarcity  and  badness  of  provisions ;  diseases  were  in  con- 
sequence introduced,  which,  in  a  few  months,  swept  away  one 


262  UNITED  STATES. 

half  of  their  number.     But  others  were  added  by  new  arrivals, 
so  that,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  they  amounted  to  200. 

13.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1G09,  Captain  Smith,  at 
once  the  shield  and  sword  of  the  colony,  returned  to  P^ngland. 
Soon  after  his  departure,  the  company  was  reduced  to  the 
greatest  extremities.  A  party  of  30  men,  under  CujAain  Rat- 
cliffe,  were  all  slain  by  the  Indians  ;  and,  in  consequence  of  a 
waste  of  provisions,  a  most  distressing  famine  prevailed  (IGIO), 
which  was  known,  for  many  years  afterwards,  by  the  name  of 
the  starving  time. 

14.  So  dreadful  was  its  effect,  that,  in  the  space  of  six  months, 
ihe  colonists  were  reduced  from  nearly  500  to  60.  This  small 
remainder,  being  exceedingly  enfeebled  and  disheartened,  re- 
solved to  abandon  the  settlement  and  return  to  England,  and 
for  this  purpose  they  had  actually  embarked  ;  but,  meeting 
with  Lord  Delaware^  who  had  been  appointed  governor,  under 
a  new  charter,  with  150  men,  and  a  large  supply  of  provisions 
they  were  induced  to  remain ;  and  the  affairs  of  the  company 
soon  began  to  assume  a  more  auspicious  appearance. 

15.  At  the  expiration  of  twelve  years  from  the  first  settle- 
ment, there  remained  only  about  600  persons ;  but,  during  the 
year  1619,  the  number  was  increased  by  the  arrival  of  eleven 
ships,  bringing  1,216  new  settlers.  The  planters  were  mostly 
adventurers,  destitute  of  families,  and  came  with  the  hope  of 
obtaining  wealth,  intending  eventually  to  return :  but  with  a 
view  to  make  their  residence  permanent,  and  attach  them  to 
the  country,  an  expedient  was  devised  for  supplying  them  with 
wives;  and  for  this  purpose,  in  the  years  1620  and  1621,  150 
unmarried  females,  "  young  and  uncorrupt,"  were  sent  over 
from  England,  to  be  sold  to  such  as  were  inclined  to  purchase. 
The  price  of  a  wife,  at  first,  was  100  pounds  of  tobacco  ;  but, 
as  the  number  for  sale  decreased,  the  price  was  raised  to  150 
pounds,  the  tobacco  being  valued  at  three  shillings  a  pound. 
In  1620,  20  negroes  were  carried  to  Virginia  in  a  Dutch  vessel 
of  war,  and  sold  for  slaves.  This  was  the  commencement,  in 
English  America,  of  the  unhappy  system  of  slavery. 

16.  The  colonists,  having  turned  their  attention  to  agricul- 
ture, particularly  to  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  and  their  num- 
bers being  increased  yearly  by  the  arrival  of  new  emigrants, 
began  to  enjoy  a  degree  of  prosperity,  when,  in  1622,  they 
experienced  a  stroke  which  came  near  proving  fatal.  Ope- 
r,anca7iough,  the  successor  of  Powhatan,  concerted  a  plan  for 
the  destruction  of  the  settlement ;  and  in  so  artful  a  manner 
was  the  plot  devised,  that  it  might  have  been  effectually  ac- 
complished, if  a  large  part  of  the  colonists  had  not  been  in- 
formed of  it  a  few  hours  before  the  time  appointed  for  its 


UNITED   STATES.  263 

execution.  The  Indians,  notwitlistanding,  succeeded  in  put- 
ting to  death,  ahnost  instantaneously,  347  persons.  A  war  of 
extermination  followed  this  massacre  ;  not  long  afterwards, 
another  distressing  famine ;  and  in  1G24,  of  9,000  persons  who 
iiad  been  sent  from  England,  only  1,800  remained  in  the  col- 
ony.    But  its  severe  losses  were  soon  repaired  by  new  arrivals. 

17.  The  colony  sufiered  by  restrictions  on  its  trade  and  by 
die  arl)itrary  government  of  Sir  John  Harvey ;  but,  in  16.3'J, 
Sir  V/iUiam  Berkeley^  a  man  of  superior  talents,  was  appointe(l 
governor;  and  during  his  administration,  which  lasted,  except 
during  the  protectorate  of  Cromwell,  nearly  40  years,  it  was 
generally  prosperous.  The  restrictions,  however,  imposed 
upon  its  trade  by  Charles  II.,  occasioned  discontents,  and, 
in  1676,  near  the  end  of  Berkeley's  administration,  gave  rise 
to  an  insurrection,  memorable  in  the  history  of  Virginia,  and 
known  by  the  name  of  Bacoii's  Rebellion,  so  called  from  its 
leader.  Many  parts  of  the  colony  were  given  up  to  pillage ; 
.Tamestown  was  burnt ;  and  all  the  horrors  of  a  civil  war  were 
felt  for  a  time,  till  at  last  the  rebellion  was  terminated  by  the 
death  of  Bacon. 

18.  The  population,  in  1660,  amounted  to  about  30,000 ; 
and,  in  the  28  succeeding  years,  the  number  was  doubled. 
The  first  adventurers  came  out  with  the  hope  of  acquiring 
wealth  by  the  discovery  of  the  precious  metals;  and  the  ships 
in  which  they  arrived  were  sent  back,  one  of  them  loaded  by 
the  miners  with  a  glittering  earth,  which  they  vainly  hoped 
contained  gold;  the  other,  loaded  with  cedar.  About  1616, 
the  cultivation  of  tobacco  was  commenced,  which  soon  became 
the  chief  object  of  attention  with  the  colonists,  and  constituted 
the  principal  part  of  their  property.  It  formed  the  medium 
of  trade,  and  was  received  by  the  government  in  the  payment 
of  taxes. 

19.  In  1609,  Henry  Hudson,  an  Englishman  in  the  service 
of  the  Dutch,  on  a  voyage  in  quest  of  a  north-west  passage  to 
India,  discovered  the  noble  river  which  bears  his  name.  The 
first  permanent  settlements  were  made  by  Dutch  adventurers, 
who  erected  two  forts,  in  or  about  the  year  1614,  one  at  Al- 
bany, the  other  on  Manhattan  Island,  where  the  city  of  New 
York  now  stantls.  The  country  was  called  Neiv  Netherlands, 
and  the  settlement  on  Manhattan  Island  was  named  Neio  Am- 
sterdam ;  which  names  they  retained  till  the  conquest  of  the 
country  by  the  English. 

20.  The  colony  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Dutch  about  50 
years,  and  the  government  was  administered  by  three  succes- 
eivc  governors,  namely.  Van  Twiller,  Kieft,  and  Sluyvesant. 


2614  UNITED   STATES. 

The  extension  of  the  English  settlements  gave  rise  to  misun- 
derstandings, and  the  Dutch  governors  were  engaged  in  a 
series  of  disputes  and  contests. 

21.  In  1664,  Cliarles  II.  of  England,  being  then  at  war  with 
the  Dutch,  granted  the  country  to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of 
York  :  Governor  Stuyvesant  was  compelled  to  capitulate  to  an 
English  force,  under  Colonel  NichoUs ;  the  whole  territory 
became  subject  to  the  British  crown,  and,  in  honor  of  the  duke, 
the  country  and  city  were  named  Neio  York. 

22.  The  Plymouth  Company,  to  whom  the  country  of  No7^lh 
Virginia  was  assigned,  commenced  a  small  settlement  on  the 
river  Sagadahoc,  or  Kennebec,  in  1607,  the  same  year  in  which 
Jamestown  was  founded  ;  but  it  was  soon  abandoned.  In  1614, 
Captain  Smith,  having  visited  the  country,  and  examined  its 
shores  and  harbors,  on  his  return  to  England,  constructed  a 
map  of  it,  which  he  presented  to  Prince  Charles,  who  changed 
its  name  from  North  Virginia  to  Neio  England ;  and  a  patent 
was  gi'anted  by  King  James,  in  1620,  to  the  Duke  of  Lenox, 
Ferdinando  Gorges,  and  others,  styled  "  The  Council  of 
Plymouth,  in  the  county  of  Devon,  for  settling  and  govern- 
ing Now  England."  This  patent  granted  to  them  the  country 
extending  from  lat.  40°  to  48°  N. ;  and  it  was  the  foundation 
of  the  subsequent  grants  of  the  several  parts  of  the  territory. 

23.  In  the  year  in  which  this  patent  was  granted,  the  first 
permanent  settlement  was  commenced  in  New  England,  at 
Plymouth,  in  Massachusetts,  by  101  Puritans,  a  class  of  dis- 
senters from  the  Church  of  England,  who  were  now  beginning 
to  become  numerous,  and  who  were  called  Puritans,  because 
they  were  desirous  of  a  purer  form  of  discipline  and  worship. 
This  small  colony  formed  a  part  of  the  congregation  of  John 
Rohinson,  who  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  denomination 
of  Independents  or  Congregaiionalists. 

24.  Being  driven  from  England  by  persecution, several  years 
before,  the  congregation,  together  with  their  minister,  had  fled 
to  Holland;  but  a  part  of  them  were,  at  length,  induced  to 
seek  an  asylum,  where  they  might  enjoy  religious  liberty,  in 
the  wilds  of  America.  The  principle  of  religious  toleration 
was  not,  at  this  period,  understood  or  practised  by  any  denom- 
ination of  Christians.  The  Puritans  were  severely  persecuted 
by  the  Church  of  England  ;  but  their  own  principles,  also, 
were  intolerant ;  and,  in  their  turn,  they  persecuted  those  who 
differed  from  them. 

25.  The  colonists  sailed,  on  the  6th  of  September,  1620 
from  Plymouth  in  England,  in  the  Mayflower,  for  Hudson's 
River,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  they  intended  to  settle , 


UNITED   STATES.  265 

but  they  were  carried,  by  head  winds,  farther  to  the  north  ;  and 
the  first  land  which  they  discovered  was  Cape  Cod.  They  ar- 
rived on  the  coast  in  November ;  and,  as  they  had  not  de- 
termined on  the  place  for  their  settlement,  parties  were  de- 
spatched to  explore  the  country,  who,  after  incredible  suffering 
from  the  severity  of  the  weather,  found  a  harbor.  Here  they 
landed,  December  22d,  1620,  and  began  to  build  a  town,  which 
they  called  Plymotitk^  from  the  name  of  the  town  which  they 
last  left  in  England. 

26.  The  difficulties  and  sufferings  which  they  had  to  en- 
counter were  sufficient  to  dishearten  men  of  ordinary  resolu- 
tion. Cast  upon  an  unknown  and  barbarous  coast,  in  a  severe 
climate,  and  at  an  inclement  season  ;  worn  down  with  their 
long  voyage,  excessive  fatigue,  the  severity  of  the  weather, 
and  the  want  of  comfortable  provisions  and  habitations,  they 
were,  soon  after  their  arrival,  visited  with  distressing  sickness, 
and,  in  three  months,  reduced  to  about  one  half  of  their  origi- 
nal number.  The  sickness  was  so  general,  that,  at  some  times, 
there  were  only  six  or  seven  well  persons  in  the  company. 

27.  They  instituted  a  republican  form  of  government,  and 
chose  John  Carver  for  their  first  governor,  who,  dying  in  1621, 
was  succeeded  by  William  Bradford.  The  governor,  who 
was  chosen  annually,  had  at  first  but  one  assistant ;  afterwards 
five  ;  and  the  number  was,  at  length,  increased  to  seven.  On 
the  opening  of  the  spring,  they  sowed  barley  and  peas,  which 
produced  but  an  indifferent  crop.  They  were  assisted  in  plant- 
ing and  dressing  Indian  corn  or  maize,  which  they  had  never 
before  seen,  by  Squanto.,  a  friendly  Indian :  this  afforded  them 
a  great  part  of  their  subsistence  ;  and  it  has  ever  since  been  a 
staple  production  of  the  country.  For  several  years  the  whole 
property  of  the  settlers  was  held  in  common. 

28.  In  order  to  protect  themselves  against  the  hostilities  of 
the  Indians,  they  formed  a  military  organization,  and  Miles 
Standish  was  chosen  their  captain.  —  In  March,  1621,  they 
were  visited  by  Sajiioset,  a  sagamore  or  petty  sachem,  who  ad- 
dressed them  with  the  friendly  salutation  of  "  Welcome,  Eng- 
lishmen !  Welcome,  Englishmen, !  "  From  him  they  obtained 
important  information  respecting  the  country,  and  learned  that, 
not  long  before,  a  mortal  pestilence  had  swept  off  almost  all 
the  Indians  in  the  vicinity.  By  his  assistance  they  entered 
into  a  treaty  of  peace  and  friendship  with  Massasoit,  sachem 
of  the  Wampanoags,  who  was  the  most  powerful  Indian  chief 
in  the  region.  This  treaty,  which  was  of  great  importance  to 
the  colony,  was  strictly  observed  till  the  commencement  of 
Philip's  war,  a  period  of  54  years. 

29.  During  subsequent  years,  there  were  numerous  arrivals 

23  * 


266  UNITED   STATES. 

of  other  persons  from  England,  whose  character  and  views 
were  similar  to  those  of  the  first  settlers  at  Plymouth.  In 
1G28,  the  foundation  was  laid  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts 
Bay,  by  a  company  of  adventurers  under  John  Endicott,  who 
formed  a  settlement  at  Naumkeag,  now  Salem;  and  in  1630, 
1,500  persons,  under  Jahn  Winthrop,  who  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor, arrived  at  Charlestoiim,  and  soon  afterwards  commenced 
the  settlement  of  Boston  and  other  towns  in  the  vicinity. 

30.  In  1623,  the  settlement  of  Neio  Hampshire  was  com- 
menced at  Dover  and  Portsmouth,  by  persons  sent  out  by  John 
Mason  and  Ferdinando  Gorges,  to  whom  the  countiy  had  been 
granted.  The  former  became  afterwards  sole  pi*oprietor  of  a 
large  part  of  the  countiy,  and  the  claims  of  his  heirs  furnished 
a  fruitful  source  of  contention.  The  settlements  were  annexed 
to  Massachusetts  in  1641,  and  so  continued  till  1679,  when  a 
separate  government  was  instituted  for  New  Hampshire. 

31.  Tn  1635,  the  settlement  of  the  colony  of  Connecticut  was 
begun,  at  Wi7idsor  and  Wethersfield,  by  about  60  persons  from 
Massachusetts ;  and,  in  1638,  the  colony  of  New  Haven  was 
commenced  by  Theophilus  Eaton,  John  Davenport,  and  others. 
These  colonies  were  united  into  one  in  1665. 

32.  The  settlement  of  Rhode  Island  was  commenced  in 
1636,  at  Providence,  by  Roger  Williams,  a  minister  of  the 
Gospel,  who  had  been  banished  from  Massachusetts  on  account 
of  his  religious  opinions. 

33.  As  the  quiet  enjoyment  of  religious  liberty  was  the  lead- 
ing cause  of  the  formation  of  these  settlements,  the  founders 
of  them  were  particularly  solicitous  with  regard  to  the  support 
and  encouragement  of  religion.  Among  the  early  settlers, 
there  were  many  men  of  talents  and  liberal  education ;  and  a 
wilderness  has  probably  never  been  planted  by  a  body  of  men 
who  were  more  mindful  of  the  interests  of  learning,  or  more 
attentive  to  the  establishment  of  schools.  In  ten  years  after 
the  first  settlement  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  Harvard  College 
was  founded  at  Cambridge. 

34.  The  colonists  were  possessed  of  many  excellent  traits 
of  character.  Their  enterprise  and  industry,  their  love  of 
liberty,  their  attention  to  education,  their  morality  and  piety, 
entitle  them  to  respect  and  admiration.  They  were  not,  how- 
ever, without  faults,  some  of  which  were  vices  of  the  age ; 
others  belonged  more  particularly  to  themselves. 

35.  With  regard  to  differences  in  religious  opinions,  their 
views  were  narrow  and  intolerant.  In  some  instances,  it  was 
enacted,  that  none  except  members  of  the  church  should  have 
a  right  to  vote  at  elections,  or  should  be  eligible  to  any  office. 
Their  rigid  principles  also  appear  in  the  severity  with  which 


UNITED   STATES.  267 

they  punished  mnny  ofTcnces,  which  arc  not  now  considered 
as  properly  coming  under  the  cognizance  of  the  civil  law. 
The  close  inspection  which  they  practised  with  regard  to  evciy 
man's  principles  and  conduct,  secured,  for  many  yeai*s,  veiy 
strict  morals  and  great  uniformity  of  doctrines.  But  it  was 
not  possible  to  prevent  differences  of  opinion  ;  and  when  these 
arose,  the  severity  with  which  those  were  treated,  who  avowed 
unpopular  sentiments,  occasioned  many  heart-burnings  and 
Mutual  reproaches. 

36.  The  colonists  landed  in  the  country  without  having  ob- 
tained the  consent  of  the  natives  ;  yet  the  principle  upon  which 
they  proceeded  was,  before  taking  possession  of  the  lands,  to 
procure  them  by  a  regular  purchase  of  the  Indians,  who  were 
considered  as  the  rightful  owners  of  the  soil.  The  treatment, 
however,  which  the  Indians  in  America  had  generally  received 
from  European  adventurers,  had  given  them  too  much  reason 
to  distrust  the  friendly  dispositions  of  white  men ;  and  it  must 
be  acknowledged,  that  the  New  England  colonists,  in  their 
proceedings  with  regard  to  this  injured  people,  were  not  always 
pacific  or  just. 

37.  In  the  third  year  after  the  formation  of  the  settlement 
at  Plymouth,  Captain  Standish^  at  the  head  of  a  small  party, 
killed  a  number  of  Indians  who  had  manifested  hostile  inten- 
tions. When  an  account  of  this  transaction  was  sent  to  Mr. 
Robinson.,  in  Holland,  in  his  next  letter  to  the  governor,  he  ex- 
claimed, in  a  manner  that  does  honor  to  his  feelings,  "  O  that 
you  had  converted  some  before  you  had  killed  any  !  "  The 
settlers  at  Plymouth  and  in  Massachusetts  Bay.,  however,  had 
but  little  trouble  with  the  Indians  for  many  years.  But  the 
colony  of  Connecticut.,  in  1637,  two  years  after  it  was  first 
planted,  was  engaged  in  a  severe  contest  with  the  Pequods.,  or 
Pequots,  a  warlike  tribe,  inhabiting  a  district  now  forming  the 
south-east  part  of  that  state.  The  Pequods  had  previously 
made  depredations  on  the  infant  settlement,  and  killed  several 
individuals.  The  Indians  were  entirely  defeated,  at  their  set- 
tlement and  forts  on  l\Iystic  River,  by  the  colonists,  under 
Captain  Mason,  with  the  loss  of  between  600  and  700  killed 
and  taken  prisoners,  being  about  two  thirds  of  their  whole 
number ;  and  70  of  their  wigwams  were  also  burnt.  Of  the 
English,  only  2  were  killed  and  16  wounded. 

38.  Not  long  after  this  contest,  the  colonists  had  strong  ap- 
prehensions of  a  general  combination  of  the  Indians  for  extir- 
pating them ;  the  proceedings  of  the  Dutch  and  the  French 
also  created  alarm.  In  order,  therefore,  to  promote  their  se- 
curity and  welfare,  the  four  colonies  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 


268  UNITED   STATES. 

Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New  Haven,  united  in  a  confed- 
eracy, in  1643,  by  the  name  of  the  United  Colonies  of  New 
England.  Each  one  elected  two  delegates,  who  were  to  as- 
semble by  rotation,  in  the  different  colonies,  annually,  or  oftener 
if  necessary.  This  union,  which  subsisted  a  little  more  than 
40  years,  till  the  colonies  were  deprived  of  their  charters  by 
James  II.,  was  of  great  service  in  promoting  harmony  among 
themselves,  and  increasing  their  means  of  defence.  In  it  we 
may  see  the  germ  of  that  grand  confederacy  which  led  to 
American  Independence. 

39.  The  most  general  and  destructive  Indian  war,  in  which 
the  colonies  were  ever  involved,  took  place  in  1675  and  1676, 
with  Philip,  king  or  sachem  of  the  Wampanoags,  and  son  of 
Massasoit,  whose  principal  residence  was  at  Mount  Hope,  in 
Rhode  Island.  He  was  the  most  formidable  enemy  that  the 
colonists  had  ever  known ;  a  man  of  great  talents  and  un- 
daunted courage,  a  shrewd  politician,  and  a  great  warrior. 

40.  The  Indian  tribes,  perceiving  the  English  settlements 
extending  in  every  direction,  determined  to  make  one  great 
and  combined  effort  to  avoid  the  loss  of  their  hunting-grounds, 
their  inheritance,  their  liberty  and  independence.  An  exten- 
sive combination  was  accordingly  formed  among  the  different 
tribes,  for  the  purpose  of  the  total  destruction  of  the  colonies ; 
and  of  this  combination  Philip  was  the  leader. 

41.  A  more  immediate  cause  of  the  war  was  the  circum- 
stance, that  Sausaman,  a  Christian  Indian,  gave  information  to 
the  colonists  of  the  plot  which  had  been  formed  against  them, 
for  which  three  Indians,  at  the  instigation  of  Philip,  murdered 
him.  The  murderers  were  tried  and  executed  by  the  English. 
In  order  to  avenge  their  death,  Philip  soon  commenced  his  hos- 
tile attacks,  and,  by  his  agents,  drew  into  the  contest  most  of 
the  tribes  in  New  England. 

42.  The  Indians  had  now  acquired,  in  some  degree,  the  use 
of  fire-arms.  Hostilities  were  conducted  with  great  spirit  and 
energy  on  both  sides,  and  with  the  usual  ferocity  of  savage 
warfare.  The  greatest  battle,  not  only  during  this  contest,  but 
in  the  early  history  of  the  country,  is  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Swamp  Fight,  which  took  place  in  December,  1675,  in  the 
Narraganset  country,  at  the  Indian  fortress,  in  a  large  swamp 
situated  in  the  western  part  of  what  is  now  the  township  of 
South  Kingston.  The  English,  who  were  commanded  by  Jo- 
siah  Winsloto,  Governor  of  Plymouth,  obtained  a  great  victory, 
yet  with  the  loss  of  230  men  killed  and  wounded ;  and  among 
their  slain  were  six  brave  captains.  About  1,000  of  the  In- 
dians are  supposed  to  have  perished,  besides  many  women  and 
children ;  and  500  or  600  of  their  wigwams  were  burnt. 


UNITED   STATES.  269 

43-  The  Indians  never  entirely  recovered  from  the  effect  of 
this  defeat.  They  were  not,  however,  subdued,  but  continued 
their  depredations  by  massacring  the  inhabitants  and  burning 
the  towns.  At  length,  in  August,  1676,  the  great  warrior 
Philip  was  shot  by  an  Indian  wliom  he  had  offended,  and  who 
joined  a  party  under  the  famous  Ccvptain  Benjamin  Church. 
This  was  a  fatal  stroke  to  the  power  of  the  aborigines,  and 
excited  the  liveliest  joy  and  exultation  in  the  colonies.  Most 
of  tho  hostile  Indians  soon  afterwards  submitted,  or  retreated 
from  the  country.  After  the  termination  of  this  conflict,  tho 
principal  sufferings  which  the  New  England  colonics  endured 
from  the  hostilities  of  the  Indians  took  place  during  the  wars 
with  the  French,  who  employed  the  savages  as  auxiliaries. 

44.  This  war  afflicted  almost  every  family  in  New  England 
with  the  most  painful  privations.  The  whole  English  popula- 
tion was  computed,  at  this  time,  to  amount  to  about  60,000, 
of  which  nearly  600  men,  comprising  a  considerable  part  of 
the  strength  of  the  country,  fell  during  the  contest,  besides 
many  women  and  children  ;  and  others  were  led  into  a  miser- 
able captivity.  About  600  buildings,  mostly  dwelling-houses, 
were  consumed  ;  12  or  13  towns  were  destroyed,  many  others 
damaged,  and  many  cattle  killed.  The  country  was  in  deep 
mourning,  there  being  scarcely  a  family  or  an  individual  who 
had  not  lost  either  a  relative  or  a  friend. 

45.  The  founder  of  Maryland  was  Sir  George  Calvert,  Lord 
Baltimore,  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  an  etninent  statesman,  who 
had  been  secretary  to  James  I.  He  first  visited  Virginia,  with 
a  view  to  form  a  settlement  of  Catholics  ;  but,  meeting  there 
with  an  unwelcome  reception,  he  fixed  his  attention  on  the  ter- 
ritory to  the  north  of  the  Potomac,  and  obtained  a  grant  of  it 
from  Charles  I.  From  the  queen  of  Charles,  Henrietta  Maria, 
the  country  was  named  Maryland.  But,  before  the  patent  was 
completed,  Siv  George  died,  and  the  grant  was  given  to  his 
eldest  son,  Cecilius,  who  succeeded  to  his  titles,  and  for  up- 
wards of  40  years  directed  the  affairs  of  the  colony,  displaying 
an  enlightened  understanding  and  a  benevolent  heart. 

46.  Leonard  Calvert,  brother  to  Cecilius,  was  appointed  the 
first  governor;  and  he,  together  with  about  200  persons,  .',om- 
menced  the  settlement  of  the  town  of  St.  Mary''s,  in  1634. 
The  leading  features  of  the,  policy  adopted  in  this  colony  do 
honor  to  the  founders.  Universal  toleration  of  religion  was 
established,  and  a  system  of  equity  and  humanity  was  practised 
with  regard  to  the  Indian  tribes. 

47.  In    1681,   the  celebrated   William   Penn    obtained    of 

23  * 


270  UNITED  STATES. 

Charles  II.  a  grant  of  the  tract  of  country  afterwards  named 
from  him  PennsyUania.  It  was  granted  to  him  in  consider- 
ation of  debts  due  from  the  crown  of  England  for  services 
performed  by  liis  father,  Admiral  Penn.  In  1682,  he  arrived 
in  the  country,  accompanied  by  about  2,000  associates,  who 
were,  most  of  them,  like  himself,  of  the  denomination  of 
Friends  or  Quakers ;  and  in  the  next  year  he  laid  out  the  plan 
of  the  city  of  Philadelphia. 

48.  This  great  man  and  wise  legislator  made  civil  and  re- 
ligious liberty  the  basis  of  all  his  institutions.  Christians  of  all 
denominations  might  not  only  live  unmolested,  but  have  a  share 
in  the  government.  In  his  intercourse  with  the  Indians,  he 
was  governed  by  the  strictest  principles  of  equity  and  hu- 
manity, treating  them  as  men  and  brethren,  possessing  the 
same  rights  as  white  men.  Soon  after  his  arrival,  he  sum- 
moned them  to  a  council,  and  obtained  of  them,  by  fair  pur- 
chase, a  cession  of  as  much  land  as  his  exigencies  required. 

49.  The  same  course  was  pursued  by  his  followers ;  the 
treaties  were  preserved  inviolate  on  both  sides ;  and  a  good 
understanding  remained  uninterrupted  for  more  than  70  years. 
It  was  seen  by  mankind,  with  surprise,  that  kindness  and  good 
faith  were  a  better  protection  than  the  sword,  even  to  a  settle- 
ment planted  among  savages ;  and  that  this  excellent  man,  by 
his  humane,  equitable,  and  pacific  policy,  without  any  warlike 
preparations  or  means  of  defence,  secured  to  his  colony  peace, 
prosperity,  and  safety,  far  more  effectually  than  Lycurgus  se- 
cured the  same  advantages  to  his  country,  by  rendering  the 
Spartans  a  nation  of  soldiers. 

50.  No  one  of  the  other  colonies  made  so  rapid  advances  in 
population  and  prosperity  as  this.  The  fertility  of  the  soil,  the 
salubrity  of  the  climate,  the  uninterrupted  peace  with  the  na- 
tives, and  the  enjoyment  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  held  out 
inducements  to  the  Quakers,  and  other  persecuted  and  oppressed 
people  in  Europe,  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Pennsylvania. 

51.  In  the  original  foundation  of  Rhode  Island,  by  Roger 
Williams  ;  of  Maryland,  by  Lord  Baltimore  ;  and,  on  a  more 
extended  scale,  of  Peimsylcania,  by  lVillia7n  Penn,  the  free 
loleration  of  religion  was  recognized  ;  and  these  were  the  first 
civil  communities  in  which  this  liberal  and  enlightened  prin- 
ciple was  legally  established  and  acted  upon.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  New  England  colonies,  with  the  exception  of  Rhode 
Island,  in  tlie  early  ages  of  their  history,  as  has  already  been 
mentioned,  persecuted  those  who  differed  from  them  with  re- 
gard to  religion  ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  Virginia  harassed  those 
who  dissented  from  the  Church  of  England. 


UNITED   STATES.  271 


SECTION  II. 

Oppressive  Measures  relating  to  the  Colonies  :  French  Wars  ; 
Capture  of  Louishurg  ;  Exjjcdition  against  New  England  ; 
Conquest  of  Canada.  —  From  A.  D.  1682  to  1763. 

1.  From  tlie  time  of  the  foundation  of  the  first  permanent 
English  settlement  in  North  America,  the  throne  of  England 
had  been  occupied  by  sovereigns  of  the  Stuart  Famili/,  the  in- 
fluence of  whose  arbitrary  principles  tended  to  increase  the 
number  of  emigrants  from  Great  Britain  to  America;  but  this 
influence  was  also  felt  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  as  well  as 
on  the  other.  The  colonies  were  repeatedly  alarmed  by  the 
danger  of  losing  their  charters,  which  were  at  last  wrested  from 
them  ;  and  several  of  the  governors  appointed  by  the  crown 
occasioned  great  uneasiness  by  their  oppressive  measures. 

2.  A  number  of  Englishmen,  after  having  visited  the  colo- 
nies, and  become,  from  dilferent  reasons,  hostile  to  them,  on 
itihir  return  to  Great  Britain,  prejudiced  the  king  and  council 
against  ^lem.  Of  these,  no  one  so  much  distinguished  himself 
as  Edward  Raridolph,  who  was  sent  over  to  America  by 
Chai'les  II.,  in  167G,  and  who,  according  to  his  own  account, 
crossed  the  Atlantic  16  times  in  nine  years,  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  the  liberties  of  New  England.  This 
purpose  he  finally  accomplished,  and  a  writ  was  issued  against 
the  several  charters  in  1683. 

3.  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  who  had  been  for  some  time  Gov- 
ernor of  New  York,  was  appointed  by  James  II.  governor  also 
of  New  England.  He  arrived  in  Boston,  in  1686,  and  sum- 
moned the  colonies  to  surrender  their  charters.  The  charter 
of  Massachusetts  was  given  up,  but  that  of  Connecticut  was 
concealed,  by  Captain  Wadsworth.,  in  the  hollow  of  an  oak  in 
Hartford.  Sir  Edmund  began  with  high  professions  of  his 
good  intentions;  but  he  soon  threw  ofi*  the  mask,  governed  in 
the  most  oppressive  manner,  and  attempted  to  render  himself 
as  despotic  in  America  as  the  king  was  disposed  to  be  in 
England. 

4.  Happily,  however,  the  reign  of  tyranny  was  of  short  du- 
ration :  the  arbitrary  pi'oceedings  of  James  II.  had  rendered 
him  so  odious,  that  he  was  compelled  to  flee  from  his  kingdom. 
The  news  of  the  Revolution  of  1688,  in  England,  and  the  ac- 
cession of  W'illiam  and  Mary  to  the  throne,  was  received,  in 
this  country,  with  ecstasy,  and  was  regarded  as  an  event  which 
brought  deliverance  from  despotism  to  America,  as  well  as  to 
Great  Britain.     The  inhabitants  of  Boston  seized  Sir  Edmund, 


272  UNITED   STATES. 

together  with  Randolph  and  about  50  others,  and  put  tlicm  in 
close  confinement,  where  they  were  kept  till  the  leaders  were 
ordered  back  to  England  for  trial.  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island  immediately  resumed  their  charters,  and  reestablished 
their  former  government. 

5.  The  people  of  Massachusetts  Bay  petitioned  the  king  for 
a  restoration  of  their  charter.  This  was,  however,  refused  ; 
but  a  new  charter,  less  favorable  to  liberty  than  the  old  one, 
was  granted,  in  1692,  by  which  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts 
Bay  and  Plymouth  were  united  into  on^  by  the  name  of  Mas- 
sachusetts ;  to  which  were  also  annexed  the  provinces  of  Maine 
and  Nova  Scotia. 

6.  Under  the  old  charter,  the  governor,  together  with  all  the 
magistrates  and  officers  of  state,  was  chosen  annually  by  the 
general  assembly,  the  members  of  which  and  the  assistants  of 
the  governor  were  elected  by  the  freemen  of  the  colony.  By 
the  new  charter,  the  appointment  of  the  governor,  lieutenant- 
governor,  secretary,  and  the  officers  of  the  admiralty,  was 
taken  from  the  colonists,  and  was  vested  in  the  crown.  The 
right  of  choosing  representatives  was  the  only  privilege  which 
was  allowed  to  the  people.  In  order  to  render  the;  change 
more  acceptable,  the  king  appointed  (1692)  Sir  William  Phips^ 
a  native  of  Maine,  the  first  governor  under  the  charter. 

7.  Scarcely  had  the  colonies  emerged  from  one  scene  of 
trouble  before  they  were  involved  in  another.  The  Revolu- 
tion in  England  restored,  in  a  great  measure,  their  liberties ; 
but  it  soon  subjected  them  to  the  evils  of  war  with  the  French 
and  the  Indians.  The  war,  during  the  reign  of  William  arid 
Mary,  lasted  from  1690  to  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  in  1697 ; 
that  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  from  1702  to  the  peace 
of  Utrecht,  in  1713. 

8.  During  the  25  years  preceding  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  the 
country  had  enjoyed  only  four  or  five  years  of  exemption  from 
war.  For  several  years,  not  less  than  a  fifth  part  of  the  in- 
habitants, able  to  bear  arms,  were  in  actual  service,  and  some- 
times one  half  of  the  militia.  Those  who  were  not  in  service 
were  obliged  to  guard  their  fields  and  families  at  home,  and 
were  subject  to  constant  alarms.  The  resources  of  the  coun- 
try were  greatly  diminished ;  the  aspect  of  affairs  gloomy ; 
many  fields  untillcd  ;  extensive  tracts  desolated  ;  the  growth 
of  the  colonies  exceedingly  checked  ;  their  frontiers  laid  waste  ; 
several  towns  bui'nt ;  and  the  greatest  barbarities  perpetrated. 

9.  It  has  been  computed  that,  during  these  wars  in  the  col- 
onies of  New  England  and  New  York,  as  many  as  8,000  young 
men,  the  flower  of  the  country,  fell  by  the  sword  of  the  enemy, 


UNITED   STATES.  273 

or  by  diseases  contracted  in  the  public  service.  Most  of  the 
families  were  in  mourning  for  the  loss  of  friends,  who  were 
either  killed  or  led  into  a  miserable  captivity. 

10.  After  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  the  colonies  enjoyed,  for 
some  years,  a  state  of  comparative  tranquillity.  But,  in  1744, 
another  war  broke  out  between  (ireat  Britain  and  France,  of 
which  ths  effects  were  felt  in  America,  and  which  was  here 
I'cndered  memorable,  chiefly  by  the  capture  of  Louishurg^  on 
the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  by  troops  from  New  England,  un- 
der tlie  command  of  General  Sir  William  Pepperell.  Louis- 
burg  had  been  fortified  by  the  French  at  a  vast  expense,  and 
was  a  place  of  such  immense  strength,  as  to  be  called  the  Dun- 
kirk or  Gibraltar  of  America ;  and  the  reduction  of  it  was 
deemed  an  object  of  the  highest  importance  to  New  England. 

11.  The  troops  under  the  command  of  General  Pepperell, 
amounting  to  4,070,  the  greater  part  from  Massachusetts,  ar- 
rived at  Canso,  on  the  4th  of  April,  1745,  and,  in  three  weeks 
after,  were  joined  by  Commodore.  Warren,  with  four  ships  from 
England.  The  siege  was  soon  after  commenced,  and  continued 
till  the  16th  of  June,  when  Louisburg,  together  with  the  island 
of  Cape  Breton,  was  surrendered  by  the  French  commander. 

12.  The  news  of  this  brilliant  achievement  occasioned  great 
exultation  in  the  colonies,  and  encouraged  them  to  attempt  the 
conquest  of  all  the  French  possessions  in  North  America.  It 
also  roused  the  government  of  France  to  seek  revenge ;  and, 
in  1746,  an  armament,  under  the  Duke  (VAnvilJe,  was  sent  to 
America,  consisting  of  11  ships  of  the  line,  and  30  smaller 
vessels  of  war,  besides  transports,  with  upwards  of  3,000  regu- 
lar troops,  and  40,000  stands  of  arms  for  the  use  of  the  Cana- 
dians and  Indians.  The  object  of  this  armament,  which  was 
the  most  formidable  that  had  ever  been  sent  to  North  America, 
was  to  recover  Louisburg,  and  to  distress,  if  not  to  conquer, 
New  England. 

13.  The  first  intelligence  of  the  sailing  of  this  fleet  filled  the 
colonists  with  consternation  ;  but  they  were  delivered  from 
their  fears  in  a  most  extraordinary  and  providential  manner. 
The  fleet  had  a  long  and  disastrous  passage,  and  sustained  so 
great  damages  by  storms,  and  losses  by  shipwrecks,  that,  on  its 
arrival,  the  force  was  reduced  more  than  one  half.  A  mortal 
sickness  prevailed  among  the  troops,  which  carried  ofl*  a  great 
part  of  them ;  and  the  two  principal  commanders  died  sud- 
denly, one  or  both  of  them  by  suicide,  in  a  fit  of  despair. 

14.  The  remaining  ships  returned  singly  to  France,  without 
having  accomplished  a  single  object  of  the  expedition  ;  and  the 
whole  design  against  the  colonies  was  frustrated  without  the 


274  UNITED   STATES. 

intervention  of  human  aid.  —  By  the  peace  of  Aix-la- Chape?] e^ 
in  1748,  Louisburg  was  given  up  to  France,  to  the  no  small 
mortification  of  the  colonies. 

15.  The  French,  having  been  tlie  first  discoverers  of  tlic  river 
Mississippi,  claimed  the  country  watered  by  it  and  its  tributa- 
ries ;  and,  in  the  succeeding  period  of  peace,  they  made  great 
exertions  to  connect  their  colonies  of  Canada  and  Louisiana,  by 
extending  the  line  of  military  posts  from  Lake  Ontario  to  the 
Ohio,  and  down  that  river  and  the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans. 

16.  A  company  of  persons  belonging  to  England  and  Vir- 
ginia, associated  by  the  name  of  the  Ohio  Company^  obtained 
from  the  king  a  grant  of  600,000  acres  of  land,  on  and  near 
the  Ohio,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  the  fur  trade  with  the 
Indians,  and  settling  the  country ;  and  they  established  some 
trading-houses  on  the  river.  But,  as  the  French  claimed  an 
exclusive  right  to  this  country  and  its  trade,  they  seized  some 
of  the  traders,  and  carried  them  prisoners  to  Canada. 

17.  The  company  complained  loudly  of  these  aggressions 
on  a  territory  which  had  been  ceded  to  it  as  a  part  of  Virginia  ; 
and  Robert  Dimoiddic,  the  governor,  having  laid  the  subject 
before  the  assembly  of  that  colony,  it  was  determined  that  it 
should  be  demanded,  in  the  name  of  the  king,  that  the  French 
should  desist  from  designs  which  were  deemed  a  violation  of 
existing  treaties.  George  Washington^  then  in  his  22d  year 
was,  in  1753,  sent  on  this  service  to  M.  de  St.  Pierre,  the 
French  commandant  on  the  Ohio,  who  stated  to  Washington, 
that  he  had  acted  according  to  his  orders. 

18.  The  British  government,  being  informed  of  the  designs 
of  the  French,  directed  the  Americans  to  oppose  them  by  force 
of  arms.  A  regiment  was  soon  formed,  and  put  under  the 
command  of  Washington,  who  was  appointed  colonel.  Troops 
were  raised  throughout  the  colonies  ;  naval  and  land  forces 
were  sent  from  England ;  and  expeditions  were,  in  1755,  sent 
against  Nova  Scotia,  Croivn  Point,  and  Niagara. 

19.  Another  expedition  against  Fort  du  Quesne  [now  Pitts- 
burg] was  commanded  by  General  Braddock,  who  had  two 
English  regiments,  and  a  body  of  colonial  troops  under  Colonel 
Washington,  the  whole  amounting  to  1,200.  Braddock  was  an 
ofiicer  of  reputation,  but  neither  he  nor  his  English  soldiers 
knew  anything  of  savage  warfare ;  and,  being  attacked  by  a 
party  of  French  and  Indians  in  ambush,  he  was  entirely  de- 
feated, and  himself  slain.  Of  86  officers,  63  were  killed  and 
wounded,  and  about  half  of  the  privates.  Washington,  who 
had  two  horses  shot  under  him,  and  four  balls  shot  through  his 
coat,  led  oflT  the  remainder  of  the  troops,  remained  unhurt,  and 
acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  good  management- 


UNITED   HTATES.  275 

20.  The  expedition  against  Croiim  Point  was  commanded 
hy  General  Johnson^  who  was  met  by  the  French  army,  under 
tne  command  of  Dieskau.,  on  the  banks  of  Lake  George.  A 
battle  ensued,  in  which  ])iesivau  was  repulsed,  with  the  loss  of 
700  or  800  men,  and  himself  mortally  wounded  ;  but  no  at- 
tempt was  made  upon  Crown  Point.  The  expedition  against 
Niagara  and  Fort  Frontenac,  under  the  command  of  Governor 
Shirley  of  Massachusetts,  was  delayed  till  it  became  too  late 
in  the  season  to  effect  anything ;  and  the  campaign  closed 
without  any  one  of  the  objects  of  the  three  expeditions  having 
been  attained. 

21.  The  war,  which  had  been  carried  on  two  years  without 
any  formal  pi-oclamation,  was  at  length  declared  in  1756.  The 
Marquis  de  Montcalm  succeeded  Dieskau ;  and  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  English  troops  was  first  given  to  the  Earl  of  Lou- 
don., and  afterwards  to  General  Ahercrombie.  Montcalm  was 
an  able  commander,  but  the  British  generals  were  weak  and 
inefficient ;  and  the  campaigns  of  1756  and  1757  brought  re- 
proach both  upon  them  and  the  British  government,  and  occa- 
sioned chagrin  and  disappointment  in  the  colonies.  But  a 
change  having  taken  place  ( 1757)  in  the  English  ministry,  and 
William  Pitt  (afterwards  Lord  Chatham)  being  placed  at  the 
licad  of  the  administration,  everything  immediately  assumed  a 
new  aspect. 

22.  This  great  man,  who  was  popular  in  America,  addressed 
a  circular  letter  to  the  colonial  governors,  assuring  them  that 
an  effectual  force  should  be  sent  from  England,  and  calling 
upon  them  to  raise  as  large  bodies  of  men  as  the  population 
would  allow.  The  number  of  men  brought  into  the  service 
was  50,000,  of  which  20,000  were  raised  in  America.  Three 
expeditions  were  resolved  on  for  the  year  1758 ;  the  first 
against  Loiiishirg,  the  second  against  Ticonderoga,  and  the 
third  against  Fort  dxi  Quesne. 

23.  In  the  expedition  against  Louisburg,  the  land  forces, 
amounting  to  14,000,  were  led  by  General  Amherst,  next  to 
whom  in  command  was  General  Wolfe ;  and  a  large  naval 
armament  was  commanded  by  Admiral  Boscawen.  After  a 
considerable  resistance,  the  fortress  was  surrendered,  with  the 
garrison,  consisting  of  nearly  6,000  men,  and  a  great  quanuty 
of  military  stores.  This  was  the  severest  blow  the  French  had 
received  since  the  commencement  of  the  war. 

24.  The  attack  on  Ticonderoga  was  conducted  by  General 
Ahercrombie,  the  commander-in-chief;  but,  owing  to  his  inju- 
dicious management,  he  was  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  about 
2,000  men.  A  detachment  of  3,000  men,  under  Colonel  Brad- 
street,  took  and  destroyed  Fort  Frontenac.     The  expedition 


276  UNITED  STATES. 

against  Fort,  du  Qucsnc  was  conducted  by  General  Forbes,  who 
took  possession  of"  the  ])ost,  and  changed  its  name  to  Pittsburg. 
After  the  disaster  at  Ticonderoga,  Abercromhie  fell  into  con- 
tempt, and  the  chief  command  was  given  to  General  Amherst. 

25.  The  camjjaign  of  1759  had  for  its  object  the  entire  con- 
quest of  Canada.  The  British  army  was  divided  into  three 
parts :  the  first  division,  under  General  Wolfe,  was  to  make  an 
attempt  on  Quebec;  the  second,  under  General  Amherst,  was 
to  attack  Ticonderoga  and  Crotvn  Point ;  and  tlie  third,  unde- 
Gmieral  Prideaux,  was  to  be  directed  against  the  stronghold 
of  Niagara. 

26.  On  the  approach  of  Amherst,  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point  were  evacuated.  Niagara  was  besieged,  and,  after  a  se- 
vere action,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English ;  but,  four 
days  before  the  conquest.  General  Prideaux  was  killed. 

27.  By  the  taking  of  these  forts,  great  advantages  were 
gained  ;  but  a  far  more  important  and  arduous  enterprise  was 
intrusted  to  the  heroic  General  Wolfe.  This  was  the  reduction 
of  Quebec,  a  place  of  immense  strength,  both  by  nature  and 
art,  and  protected  by  about  10,000  men,  under  that  able  and 
hitherto  successful  general,  Montcalm.  But  the  difficulties 
which  the  English  general  had  to  surmount  served  only  to  in- 
flame his  ardent  mind,  and  his  military  enthusiasm.  Having 
landed  his  army,  consisting  of  8,000  men,  on  the  island  of  Or- 
leans, below  Quebec,  he  made  some  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
reduce  the  city. 

28.  He  then  conceived  the  bold  design  of  scaling,  during 
the  night,  a  steep  precipice  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river,  and 
in  this  way  to  reach  the  Heights  or  Plains  of  Abraham  behind 
the  city,  where  it  was  least  defensible.  This  he  effected  before 
Montcalm  was  aware  of  his  design,  and  the  whole  army  was 
arrayed  on  the  plains  before  sunrise.  A  hot  battle  followed, 
in  which  the  French  were  entirely  defeated,  with  the  loss  of 
1,500  men,  and  their  four  principal  commanders:  the  English 
lost  500,  together  with  their  two  first  officers.  The  two  gretti 
rivals,  Wolfe  and  Montcalm,  were  both  mortally  wounded  be- 
fore the  battle  was  terminated. 

29.  Wolfe,  having  received  a  fatal  wound,  was  carried  to 
the  rear  ;  where,  at  his  request,  he  was  raised  up,  that  he  might 
take  a  view  of  the  engagement.  Faint  with  the  loss  of  blood, 
and  his  eyes  dimmed  by  the  approach  of  death,  he  was  roused 
at  the  words,  "  They  fly,  they  fly  !  "  "  Who  fly  .?  "  he  ex- 
claimed. He  was  told,  "  The  enemy  !  "  "  Then,"  said  the 
hero,  "  I  die  contented"  ;  and,  having  said  this,  he  expired  in 
the  moment  of  victory.- —  The  same  military  enthusiasm  ani- 
mated Montcalm.     Bein";  told  that  he  could  not  continue  more 


UNITED   STATES.  277 

than  a  few  hours,  he  said,  "  It  is  so  much  the  hotter ;  I  shall 
not  then  live  to  sec  tlie  surrender  of  Quebec." 

30.  Five  days  after  this  battle,  tlie  city  of  Qiiehec  surren- 
dered to  the  English  army  and  fleet ;  and,  in  the  following  year 
( 1760),  all  Canada  submitted.  By  the  ;;eace  of  Paris,  in  1763, 
the  French  northern  possessions  in  America  —  Canada,  Noi-n 
Scotia,  and  the  island  of  Cape  Breton  —  were  confirmed  to 
Britain.  The  success  of  this  war,  joyful  as  it  was  to  England, 
was  still  more  so  to  the  Colonies,  who  now  expected  a  release 
from  the  heavy  calamities  which  they  had  long  suffered  from 
hostilities  with  the  French  and  Indians.    • 


SECTION  III. 

Disputes  hetween  Great  Britain  and  the  Colonies ;  Commence- 
ment of  Hostilities  ;  Battles  of  Lexington  and  Bunker  Hill ; 
Declaration  of  Independence.  —  From  A.  D.  1763  to  1776. 

1.  The  colonists,  from  the  time  of  the  first  settlement  of  the 
country,  had  been  ardently  attached  to  liberty,  and  exti-emely 
jealous  of  any  invasion  of  their  rights.  The  emigrants  from 
England  to  America  had  been  induced  to  leave  their  native 
land  principally  by  the  idea  that  they  might  escape  from  op- 
pression and  arbitrary  power,  and  might  enjoy  freedom,  both 
civiland  religious.  They  cherished,  however,  a  strong  attach- 
ment to  the  parent  country  as  the  land  of  their  forefathers, 
always  acknowledged  themselves  subjects  of  the  crown  of 
Great  Britain,  and  were  loyal  and  faithful  subjects. 

2.  Notwithstanding  their  various  emban-assments,  the  long 
and  distressing  wars  with  the  Indians  and  French,  and  the 
severe  restrictions  which  were  imposed  by  Great  Britain  upon 
their  trade,  and  which  were  borne,  in  some  instances,  with  ex- 
treme impatience,  —  yet,  amidst  these  difficulties,  the  Colonies 
made  rapid  progress  in  wealth  and  population,  and  in  all  the 
arts  of  civil  life  ;  and,  at  the  peace  of  1763,  they  had  risen  to 
a  high  state  of  prosperity.  They  abounded  in  spirited  and  ac- 
tive individuals  of  all  denominations. 

3.  After  the  conquest  of  Canada  had  freed  them  from  the  dis- 
tresses occasioned  by  war  with  the  French  and  savages,  and 
given  them  a  short  interval  of  repose,  troubles  assailed  them 
from  a  new  and  unexpected  quarter.  The  mother  country  be- 
gan speedily  to  assert  her  sovereignty  over  them,  and  to  inter- 
fere in  their  civil  concerns  in  a  manner  which  excited  the  most 
serious  alarm. 

24 


278  UNITED   STATES. 

4.  The  wfir,  which  Great  Britain  had  carried  on  in  dcfeuca 
of  her  American  ])ossessions,  had  made  a  vast  addition  to  her 
national  debt,  and  greatly  increased  the  burdens  of  lier  sub- 
jects ;  and  a  plan  of  raising  a  revenue,  by  taxing  the  Colonies, 
vvau  formed  by  parliament,  under  pretext  that  the  mother  coun- 
'.ry  micht  obtain  indemnification  for  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

5.  Bat  it  was  maintained,  on  the  other  hand,  by  the  Colonies, 
tha'.,  if  the  war  had  been  waged  by  Great  Britain  on  their  ac- 
count, it  was  because  they  were  useful  to  her ;  that,  by  the 
advantages  which  she  derived  from  the  monopoly  of  their  com- 
^nerce,  fehe  was  interested  in  their  defence  ;  that,  by  the  happy 
-crminat'on  of  the  war,  they  derived  no  benefit  which  was  not 
■;  source  of  ultimate  profit  to  the  mother  country ;  and  that 
.heir  own  exertions  had  been  greater  in  proportion  to  their 
ability  than  hers.  .They  also  urged  their  claim  to  all  the  rights 
Df  English  subjects,  and  maintained  that,  of  these  rights,  none 
was  more  indisputable  than  that  no  subject  could  be  deprived 
vif  his  property  but  by  his  own  consent,  expressed  in  person  or 
jy  his  representatives. 

6.  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1764,  parliament  passed  an 
.•^ot  by  which  dut'es  were  laid  on  goods  imported  from  such 
West  India  islands  as  did  not  belong  to  Great  Britain  ;  and  Mr. 
Gremnlle,  the  prime  minister,  proposed  a  resolution,  "  that  it 
would  be  proper  to  charge  certain  stamp  duties  on  the  Colo- 
nies," but  postponed  the  consideration  of  that  subject  to  a  fu- 
ture sesoion.  These  proceedings  occasioned  great  uneasiness 
and  alarm,  and  were  remonstrated  against  by  the  Colonies. 

7.  The  sy.'?tem,  however,  was  persisted  in  by  parliament, 
and,  early  in  the  next  yeat,  the  Stamp  Act  was  passed  (1765), 
laying  a  duty  on  all  paper  used  for  instruments  of  writing,  as 
deeds,  notes,  &c.,  and  declaring  writings  on  unstamped  mate- 
rials to  be  null  and  void.  The  news  of  this  measure  caused  a 
great  sensation  t^iroughout  the  country.  The  assembly  of  Vir- 
ginia, being  in  session  when  the  information  arrived,  first  de- 
clared its  opposition  to  the  act  by  a  number  of  spirited  resolu- 
tions, which  were  bvought  forward  by  Patrick  Henry  ;  and  the 
assembly  of  Massachusetts,  before  what  had  been  done  in  Vir- 
ginia was  known,  bevides  passing  resolutions  opposed  to  the 
claims  of  the  British  parliament,  took  measures  to  secure  the 
benefit  of  united  counsi^l^;  in  the  common  cause,  and  proposed  a 
General  Congress,  from  the  several  Colonies,  to  be  held  at  New 
York.  In  all  the  ColoiJes,  a  determined  spirit  of  resistance 
was  soon  manifested. 

8.  When  the  news  of  ihe  stamp  act  arrived  at  Boston,  the 
bells  were  muffled,  and  rung  a  funeral  peal.  The  crown  offi- 
cers were  insulted ;  their  houses  broken  open  or  demolished ; 


UNITED  STATES.  279 

nnd,  among  other  outrages,  the  populace  destroyed  a  valuable 
collection  of  original  paj)ers  belonging  to  the  governor,  Thoinas 
Hutchinson,  and  relating  to  the  history  of  America.  A  similar 
spirit  was  manifested  in  the  other  Colonies  ;  and,  in  New  York, 
the  act  was  hawked  about  the  streets  with  a  Death's  head 
affixed  to  it,  and  styled  "  The  Folly  of  England  and  the  Ruin 
of  America."  The  merchants  also  associated,  and  agreed  to 
a  resolution  not  to  import  any  more  goods  from  Great  Britain 
until  the  act  should  be  repealed. 

9.  A  Colonial  Congress,  consisting  of  28  delegates,  appoint- 
ed by  the  assemblies  of  nine  of  the  Colonies,  assembled  on  the 
7th  of  October,  in  17G5,  at  New  Yo7'k,  and  published  a  declar- 
ation of  their  rights  and  their  grievances,  insisting  particularly 
on  the  right  of  exclusively  taxing  themselves,  and  complaining 
loudly  of  the  stamp  act.  The  merchants  of  Boston,  New 
York,  and  Philadelphia,  entered  into  an  agreement  not  to  im- 
port or  sell  any  British  goods  so  long  as  the  oflensive  measure 
should  be  continued.  So  general  was  the  opposition,  that  thp 
stamp  officers,  in  all  the  Colonies,  were  compelled  to  resign ; 
and  the  act  was  never  executed.  A  change  took  place  in  the 
British  cabinet,  and  through  the  exertions  of  Mr.  Pitt,  Lord 
Camden,  and  others,  the  stamp  act  was  repealed  in  March, 
1766 ;  but  the  repeal  was  preceded  by  a  declaration  of  parlia- 
ment, "  that  they  had,  and  of  right  ought  to  have,  power  to 
bind  the  Colonies  in  all  cases  whatsoever." 

10.  The  favorite  project  of  the  British  ministry,  of  taxing 
America,  was  still  persisted  in ;  and  in  June,  1767,  an  act  was 
passed  by  parliament,  imposing  a  duty  on  tea,  paper,  glass, 
and  painters''  colors.  To  render  the  act  effiictual,  a  custom- 
house was  established  in  Boston,  with  a  board  of  commissioners 
for  the  Colonies ;  and  in  September,  1768,  two  British  regi- 
ments arrived  in  the  town.  Another  most  arbitrary  measure 
of  parliament,  which  gave  great  offence,  was  a  proposition  that 
offenders  in  Massachusetts  should  be  sent  to  England  for  trial. 

11.  The  feelings  of  the  Americans  were  now  greatly  exas- 
perated. To  a  free  and  high-spirited  people,  the  presence  of 
an  insolent  soldiery,  sent  with  a  design  to  intimidate  them, 
could  not  but  be  extremely  odious  and  provoking.  The  causes 
of  irritation  were  numerous  ;  quarrels  daily  occurred  between 
the  soldiers  and  the  populace  ;  and  on  the  5th  of  March,  1770, 
an  affray  took  place  between  a  detachment  of  troops  under 
Captain  Preston,  and  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  Boston,  in 
which  three  of  the  latter  were  killed,  and  five  dangerously 
wounded.  The  funeral  of  the  deceased  was  conducted  with 
great  pomp  and  ceremony,  expressive  of  the  public  grief  and 
indignation.     After  the  feelings  of  the  people  had,  in  some 


280  UNITED   STATES. 

measure,  subsided,  Captain  Preston  and  his  soldiers  were 
brought  to  trial  before  a  court  of  the  province,  and  a  jury  of 
the  neighborhood.  They  had  for  their  counsel  John  Adams 
and  Josiah  Quiiicy,  two  leaders  of  the  popular  paily,  and  were 
all  acquitted,  except  two,  who  were  convicted  of  manslaughter. 

12.  During  this  year  (1770),  Lord  North  was  appointed 
prime  minister  of  England,  and  all  the  duties  were  repealed 
except  the  one  of  three  pence  per  pound  on  tea.  By  this  the 
British  ministry  intended  to  establish  their  right  to  raise  a 
revenue  in  the  Colonies ;  but  the  Americans  were  determined 
to  resist  the  principle  of  taxation  in  every  shape.  —  The  year 
of  1771,  in  relation  to  the  matters  in  controversy,  was  not  dis- 
tinguished by  any  important  event. 

13.  In  July,  1772,  the  representatives  of  Massachusetts 
passed  resolutions,  expressing  great  dissatisfaction  with  the 
new  regulation  of  the  British  government,  by  which  the  gov- 
ernor was  to  have  his  support  from  the  crown.  This  measure 
they  declared  to  be  "  an  infraction  of  their  charter."  But  the 
governor  defended  the  measure.  The  inhabitants  of  Boston 
held  a  town  meeting  in  November,  in  relation  to  this  subject. 
A  committee  of  correspondence  was  appointed  ;  and  a  report, 
setting  forth  the  rights  and  the  grievances  of  the  colonists,  was 
printed  and  circulated  through  the  towns  of  the  province.  The 
towns  generally  responded  to  the  report,  declaring  their  opinion 
that  their  charter  had,  in  many  respects,  been  grossly  violated. 

14.  In  177.3,  the  inhabitants  of  New  York  and  Plliladelphia 
returned  to  England  the  tea  ships  which  were  sent  to  those 
cities ;  but  the  people  of  Boston  having  failed  in  their  attempts 
to  carry  into  eflect  the  same  measure,  about  twenty  persons, 
disguised  like  Indians,  went  on  board  the  vessels,  and  threw  the 
tea,  consisting  of  342  chests,  into  the  harbor. 

15.  —  (1774.)  —  In  consequence  of  these  measui'es,  parlia- 
ment passed  further  hostile  acts ;  and  Boston,  being  regarded 
as  the  chief  seat  of  rebellion,  was  selected  as  an  object  of  ven- 
geance. By  one  of  the  acts,  called  the  "  Boston  Port  Bill,'' 
all  intercourse  by  water  with  that  town  was  prohibited  ;  the 
j,^overnment  and  public  officers  were  removed  to  Salem  •  and 
power  was  given  to  the  governor  to  send  persons  charged  with 
high  treason  to  be  tried  in  Great  Britain.  A  great  part  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Boston  were  suddenly  deprived  of  the  means  of 
subsistence  ;  but  their  sufferings  were  relieved  by  contributions 
forwarded  from  different  parts.  All  these  vindictive  measures 
only  served  more  firmly  to  unite  the  Americans  in  their  resist- 
ance to  the  mother  country. 

16.  In  May,  General  Gage,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  forces  in  North  America,  arrived  in  Boston,  commis- 


UNITKD   STATES.  281 

sioncd  as  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  in  place  of  Hutcliinson, 
and,  shortly  after,  two  more  regiments  landed  with  artillery  and 
military  stores,  —  events  whicli  indicated  the  determination  of 
the  British  government  to  reduce  the  Colonies  to  submission  by 
force  of  arms. 

17.  When  the  Americans  saw,  by  these  proceedings,  that  a 
reconciliation  was  no  longer  to  be  expected,  and  that  their 
riglits  were  to  be  defended  by  an  a]i[)eal  to  force,  they  took 
measures  to  prepare  themselves  for  the  contest.  A  commit- 
tee of  correspondence  was  formed  by  distinguished  men  in 
Massachusetts,  who  framed  an  agreement,  called  a  Solem-i 
League  and  Covenant^  by  wliich  they  determined  to  suspend 
all  intercourse  with  Great  Britain,  until  their  rights  should  be 
restored. 

18.  The  general  court  of  Massachusetts  resolved  that  a  con- 
gi-ess  of  the  Colonies  was  necessary  :  they  also  enrolled  a  body 
of  men  to  be  prepared  for  marching  at  a  minute's  notice,  and 
therefore  called  minutc-mcn ;  appointed  five  general  officers  to 
command  them ;  formed  a  committee  of  safety ;  and  took 
measures  to  collect  military  stores  at  Concord  and  Worcester. 

19.  On  the  4th  of  September,  deputies  from  eleven  of  the 
Colonies  met  at  Philadelphia,  and  the  next  day,  having  formed 
themselves  into  a  congress,  chose  Peyton  Randolph,  of  Vir- 
ginia, president,  and  Charles  Thompson,  secretary.  This  body, 
generally  known  by  the  name  of  the  Continental  Congress, 
was  composed  of  55  members,  most  of  whom  were  men  of 
distinguished  character  and  talents.  They  published  a  declar- 
ation of  the  rights  of  the  Colonies ;  agreed  to  suspend  all  com- 
mercial intercourse  with  Great  Britain  ;  and  drew  up  an  address 
to  tlie  king,  another  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  and  a  third 
to  the  Colonics.  These  able  state  papers  were  highly  ap 
plaudcd  by  Lord  Chatham  in  the  BritiSTi  parliament. 

20.  The  disparity  between  the  two  contending  parties  was 
immense.  Great  Britain  was  the  first  maritime  power  in  the 
world,  and  possessed  great  wealth,  vast  resources,  well-disci- 
plined armies,  and  experienced  and  able  military  and  naval 
commanders.  The  Colonies  possessed  none  of  these  advan- 
tages, and  had  no  general  government  to  control  the  contending 
interests  of  the  different  parts.  They  were  almost  entirely 
destitute  of  experienced  officers,  of  disciplined  troops,  of  arms 
and  munitions  of  war,  of  armed  ships,  and  of  revenue.  Their 
want  of  these  essential  articles,  particularly  of  regular  and  dis- 
ciplined troops,  of  good  arms  and  ammunition,  and  more  es- 
pecially of  money,  embarrassed  all  their  operations  during  tho 
continuance  of  the  war.  Their  resolution  to  engage  in  the  un- 
equal contest  was  regarded,  in  England,  with  the  utmost  con- 

24  * 


282  UNITED   STATES. 

tempt ;  and  it  was  confiaently  expected,  by  the  British  ministry 
that  their  efforts  would  be  speedily  and  easily  crushed. 

21.  —  (1775.)  —  When  the  proceedings  of  the  American 
congress  were  laid  before  parliament,  a  joint  address  of  both 
Houses  was  presented  to  the  king,  declaring  that  a  rebellion 
actually  existed  in  Massachusetts,  and  beseeching  his  majesty 
to  suppress  it.  In  the  winter  and  spring  of  1775,  the  army  in 
Boston  was  increased  to  10,000,  which  number  was  deemed 
sufficient  tc  reduce  the  rebellious  Colonies  to  submission. 

22.  Soon  after,  a  bill  was  brought  forward  in  parliament  by 
Lord  North,  which  he  termed  a  conciliatory  proposition,  the 
purport  of  which  was,  that  when  any  colony  should  make  pro- 
vision for  contributing  its  proportion  to  the  common  defence, 
and  make  such  provision  also  for  the  support  of  its  civil  gov- 
ernment as  should  be  approved  by  his  majesty  and  the  parlia- 
ment, the  British  government  would  abstain  from  taxing  such 
colony,  and  confine  itself  to  commercial  regulations.  The 
design  of  this  proposition  was  to  unite  Great  Britain,  and  di- 
vide America  ;  but  it  was  universally  rejected  by  the  Colonies, 
and  by  the  congress  assembled  at  Philadelphia.  It  was  derided 
also  by  the  friends  of  America  in  parliament  as  nugatory, 
since  it  was  the  right,  not  the  mode,  of  taxation  which  the  Col- 
onies disputed, 

23.  In  February,  General  Gage  sent  a  party  of  troops  to 
Salem,  to  seize  some  cannon  which  had  been  lodged  there  ; 
but  finding,  on  their  arrival,  that  the  cannon  had  been  removed, 
they  marched  back  unmolested.  In  April,  he  sent  another 
body  of  troops,  under  Colonel  Smith  and  Major  Pitcairn,  to 
seize  some  military  stores  at  Concord.  The  march,  though  in 
the  night,  was  discovered ;  and  early  in  the  morning  of  the 
19th  of  the  month,  as  they  passed  through  Lexington,  about 
70  men,  belonging  to  tlft  minute  company  of  that  town,  were 
"found  on  the  green,  or  common,  under  arms.  Major  Pitcairn, 
riding  up  to  them,  called  out,  "  Disperse,  disperse,  you  rebels  !  " 
Not  being  obeyed,  he  discharged  his  pistol,  and  ordered  his 
troops  to  fire.  Eight  Americans  were  killed,  and  several 
wounded.  Thus  began  the  sanguinary  contest  which  issued 
in  the  establishment  of  American  Independence. 

24.  Having  dispersed  the  militia  at  Lexington,  the  British 
troops  proceeded  to  Concord,  and  destroyed  some  military 
stores  collected  in  that  town.  On  their  return,  the  passage  of 
a  bridge  over  Concord  River  was  disputed  ;  a  skirmish  ensued, 
which  was  attended  with  some  loss  on  both  sides.  The  people 
of  the  neighborhood  were  soon  in  arms,  and  attacked  the  re- 
treating troops  in  all  directions  ;  some  firing  behind  stone  walla 
and  trees,  and  others  pressing  upon  their  rear,  till  they  had  re 


UNITED   STATES.  283 

turned  as  far  as  Lexington,  where  they  Avere  joined  by  a  rein- 
forcement, which  secured  their  retreat  to  Boston,  after  a  loss 
of  65  killed  and  180  wounded.  Of  the  Americans,  50  were 
killed  and  31  wounded. 

25.  The  affair  at  Lexington  was  a  signal  for  war.  The 
forts,  magazines,  and  arsenals,  throughout  the  Colonics,  were 
instantly  secured  for  the  use  of  the  Americans.  Regular  forces 
were  raised  ;  an  army  of  about  20,000  men  was  collected  in  the 
vicinity  of  Boston,  and  soon  increased  by  a  considerable  body 
of  troops  from  Connecticut,  under  Colonel  (afterwards  General) 
Putnam.  By  these  forces  the  British  troops  were  closely  blocked 
up  in  the  peninsula  of  Boston. 

2G.  An  expedition,  commanded  by  Colonel  Ethan  Allen  and 
Colonel  Benedict  Arnold.,  was  sent  to  Ticonderoga  ;  and  another, 
commanded  by  Colonel  Warner.,  to  Crown  Point ;  and  both 
those  important  fortresses  were  soon  secured. 

27.  The  provincial  congi'css  of  Massachusetts,  which  was  in 
session  at  the  time  of  the  affair-  at  Lexington,  despatched  an 
account  of  the  transaction  to  England,  with  depositions  to  prove 
that  the  British  troops  were  the  aggressors.  They  declared 
their  loyalty  to  the  crown,  but  protested  that  they  would  not 
suljmit  to  the  tyranny  of  the  British  ministry.  "  Appealing  to 
Heaven  for  the  justice  of  our  cause,"  they  added,  "  we  deter- 
mine to  die  or  be  free." 

28.  The  second  Continental  or  General  Congress  met  at  Phil- 
adelphia, in  May,  and  the  appellation  of  the  United  Colonies 
was  assumed.  The  congress  recommended  the  observance  of 
a  day  of  humiliation,  to  implore  the  blessings  of  Heaven  on 
their  sovereign,  the  King  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  interposition 
of  Divine  aid  to  remove  their  grievances,  and  restore  harmony 
between  the  parent  state  and  the  Colonies,  on  constitutional 
terms. 

29.  Towards  the  end  of  May,  considerable  reinforcements 
of  British  troops  arrived  at  Boston,  together  with  Generals 
Howe.,  Biirgoyne,  and  Clinton,  officers  who  had  acquired  a 
high  reputation  in  the  preceding  war  between  England  and 
1'' ranee.  Martial  law  was  proclaimed ;  but  a  show  of  recon- 
ciliation was  still  held  out  by  the  offer  of  General  Gage,  in  the 
king''s  name,  of  pardon  to  all  such  as  should  return  to  their  al- 
legiance, with  the  exception  of  two  of  the  most  active  patriots 
in  Massachusetts,  John  Hancock  and  Samuel  Adams,  the  for- 
mer of  whom  was  chosen  president  of  the  general  congress 
then  in  session. 

30.  It  was  determined  by  the  Americans  to  annoy,  and,  if 
possible,  to  dislodge,  the  British  forces  in  Boston ;  and,  for  this 
purj)ose,  a  detachment  of  1000  men,  under  the  command  of 


284  UNITED  STATKS. 

Colonel  Prescof.l,  was  ordered,  on  tlic  IGth  of  June,  to  throw 
up  a  breast-work  on  Bunker  Hill.,  in  Cliarlcstown.  They 
prosecuted  the  design  so  silently  and  expeditiously,  that  they 
had  nearly  completed  the  redoubt  by  the  return  of  daylight, 
without  being  discovered.  Soon  after  the  dawn,  the  British 
began  to  cannonade  the  works  from  their  ships ;  and,  in  the 
morning,  the  Americans  received  a  reinforcement  of  500  men. 

31.  About  noon  {ViLh  of  June).,  General  Hotve,  at  the  head 
of  3,000  men,  advanced  to  make  an  attack  upon  the  works. 
Tb.e  fire  of  the  Americans  was  dreadful,  insomuch  that  the 
whole  British  line  recoiled,  and  was  thrown  into  great  disorder  ; 
but,  from  the  failure  of  ammunition,  the  Americans  were 
obliged  to  retreat.  The  loss  of  the  English  amounted  to  1,054 
in  killed  and  wounded ;  that  of  the  Americans,  to  453 ;  and 
among  their  killed  was  the  lamented  Major -General  Warren^ 
who  hastened  to  the  field  of  battle  as  a  volunteer.  While  the 
British  troops  were  advancing,  orders  v/ere  given  to  set  fire  to 
Charlestown ;  and  the  whole  town,  consisting  of  about  400 
houses,  was  laid  in  ashes.  This  barbarous  act,  which  was  of 
no  advantage  to  the  enemy,  served  still  further  to  exasperate 
the  Americans. 

32.  Congress  resolved  on  measures  of  defence ;  drew  up  a 
second  petition  to  the  king,  and  addresses  to  the  people  of 
Great  Britain  and  of  Canada,  setting  forth  their  reasons  for 
taking  up  arms ;  and  organized  a  continental  army.  It  was  a 
point  of  immense  importance  to  select  a  suitable  man  for  com- 
mander-in-chief. Fortunately,  their  choice,  by  a  unanimous 
vote,  fell  upon  George  Washington,  a  member  of  their  body 
from  Virginia,  who,  in  the  late  French  war,  had  distinguished 
himself  by  his  courage 'and  talents.  He  received  from  nature 
a  mind  of  extraordinary  capacity,  and  was  endowed  with  an 
uncommon  degree  of  perseverance,  prudence,  and  bravery ; 
while  the  soundness  of  his  judgment,  the  elevation  of  his  char- 
acter, and  the  purity  of  his  motives,  were  calculated  to  inspire 
the  highest  confidence.  He  entered  immediately  upon  the  du- 
ties of  his  ofiice  ;  and,  on  the  2d  of  July,  he  arrived  at  Cam- 
Iridge,  where  he  established  his  head-quarters. 

33.  Congress,  after  choosing  the  commander-in-chief,  ap- 
pointed four  major-generals  and  eight  brigadiers  for  the  conti- 
nental army.  The  major-generals  were  Artemas  Ward,  Charles 
Lee,  Philip  Schuyler,  and  Israel  Putnam ;  the  brigadier-gene- 
rals, Seth  Pomroy,  Richard  Montgomery ,  David  Woosfer,  Wil- 
liam Heath,  Josejoh  Spencer,  John  Thomas,  John  Sullivan,  and 
Nathaniel  Greene.  Horatio  Gates  was  appointed  adjutant- 
general,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier. 

34.  In  pursuance  of   a   plan  of  guarding  the   frontiers  hy 


UNITED  STATES.  285 

faking  Canada,  an  expedition  was  sent  against  tliat  province 
under  the  command  of"  Generals  Schuyler  and  Montgomery ; 
Ijiit  the  former  returning,  to  liold  a  treaty  with  the  Indians, 
was  prevented  by  sickness  from  again  joining  the  army,  and 
tiie  chief  command  devolved  upon  the  hitter.  Having  taken 
Fort,  Chamhlee  and  St.  John''s,  he  advanced  to  Montreal,  which 
surrendered  without  resistance  ;  thence  he  proceeded  rapidly 
to  Quebec. 

35.  Colonel  Arnold,  with  about  1,000  men,  had  been  sent 
from  Cambridge  to  penetrate  to  that  city,  by  way  of  the  Ken- 
nebec and  the  wilderness.  After  a  march,  in  which  he  and 
liis  troops  were  exposed  to  almost  incredible  sufferings,  he 
joined  Montgomery  before  Quebec,  in  November.  They  made 
a  desperate  attempt  to  carry  the  city  by  assault,  in  which,  after 
displaying  the  highest  intrepidity,  they  were  repulsed,  with  a 
loss  of  upwards  of  400  killed  and  wounded  ;  and  General  Mont- 
gomery was  slain.  Early  in  the  next  season,  the  Americans 
entirely  evacuated  Canada. 

36.  While  hostilities  were  thus  carried  on  in  the  north,  the 
inhabitants  of  Virginia,  who  had,  from  the  commencement  of 
the  controversy,  been  in  the  foremost  rank  of  opposition,  were 
engaged  in  a  contest  with  the  royal  governor.  Lord  Dunmore,, 
whose  intemperate  measures  advanced  the  cause  which  he  at- 
tempted to  overthrow.  In  the  end,  he  was  forced  to  take 
refuge  with  his  family  on  board  a  man-of-war.      For  some 

ime,  he  carried  on  a  predatory  warfare  against  the  Colonies, 
>y  landing  detachments  of  troops  from  the  ships ;  and,  after 
laving  destroyed  or  taken  the  military  stores  of  the  Colonies  at 
Norfolk,  he  caused  that  town,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1776,  to 
oe  laid  in  ashes ;  but  he  was  finally  driven  from  the  coast. 

37.  In  like  manner  the  royal  governors  of  North  and  South 
<varolina  were  expelled  by  the  people  ;  and,  before  the  end  of 
the  year  1775,  all  the  old  governments  of  the  Colonies  were 
dissolved.  Many  adherents  to  Great  Britain  (styled  Tories), 
however,  remained  in  the  country  ;  aad  in  some  of  the  Colonies 
they  were  numerous  and  powerful  :  part  of  them,  being  men 
of  principle,  remained  quiet ;  othei's  were  active  in  their  hos- 
tility, and  contributed  to  weaken  the  opposition  to  the  British 
arms.  —  In  October,  General  Gage  embarked  for  England,  and 
the  chief  command  of  the  British  forces  devolved  upon  General 
Sir  WiJliam  Howe. 

38.  —  (1776.)  —  The  American  army,  investing  Boston, 
amounted  to  about  15,000  men;  but  it  was  unaccustomed  to 
discipline,  and,  in  a  great  measui-e,  destitute  of  good  arms,  am- 
munition, clothing,  and  experienced  officers  ;  and  for  want  of 
gunpowder,  and  for  other  reasons,  was  rendered  inactive  during 


286  UNITED  STATES. 

the  summer  and  autumn  of  1775.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
winter,  General  Washington  resolved  to  expel  the  British  from 
Boston  :  in  order  to  divert  their  attention,  a  severe  cannonade 
was  commenced  upon  them  by  the  Americans,  on  the  2d  of 
March ;  and,  on  the  night  of  the  4th,  a  battery  was  erected, 
with  surprising  despatch,  on  Dorchester  Heights,  a  position 
from  which  the  American  troops  might  greatly  annoy  the  ships 
in  the  harbor  and  the  soldiei's  in  the  town. 

39.  General  Howe  prepared  to  attack  the  works,  but  a  stcrm 
prevented  him  till  they  were  rendered  so  strong  that  it  was 
deemed  inexpedient.  The  only  alternative  now  was  to  evacu- 
ate the  town ;  which  having  been  done.  General  Washington, 
on  the  17th  of  March,  entered  triumphantly  into  Boston,  where 
he  was  joyfully  received,  as  a  delivei*er,  by  the  oppressed  in- 
habitants. 

40.  On  the  28th  of  June,  an  attack  was  made  by  Sir  Peter 
Parker,  with  a  naval  force,  on  the  fort  on  Sullivan's  Island,  with 
a  design  to  reduce  Charleston,  in  South  Carolina.  The  fire  was 
returned  with  great  effect  from  the  fort,  which  was  commanded 
by  Colonel  Moultrie,  and  the  British  were  compelled  to  retreat, 
with  much  damage  to  their  ships,  and  with  a  loss  of  upwards 
of  200  men  in  killed  and  wounded.  The  fort,  in  compliment 
to  the  commander,  was,  from  that  time,  called  Fort  Moultrie. 

41.  The  news  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  excited  astonish- 
ment in  England.  The  partisans  of  the  ministry  had  been 
accustomed  to  speak  of  the  American  troops  in  terms  of  the 
utmost  contempt ;  but  it  now  appeared  that  they  were  engaged 
in  a  sanguinary  contest  of  doubtful  issue  ;  and  Lord  Chatham, 
Burke,  and  Fox,  endeavored,  but  without  success,  to  produce 
a  change  in  the  measures  of  government.  The  ministry  de- 
termined to  employ  a  powerful  force  to  reduce  the  Colonies, 
and  obtained  an  act  of  parliament,  authorizing  them  to  take 
into  pay  16,000  mercenaries,  the  troops  of  the  Landgrave' of 
Hesse  and  the  Duke  of  Brunsioick.  All  trade  and  intercourse 
with  the  Colonies  were  prohibited ;  and  their  property  on  the 
high  seas  was  declared  to  be  forfeited  to  those  who  should 
captui'e  it.  The  whole  force,  now  destined  against  America, 
amounted  to  about  50,000  men. 

42.  The  controversy  had  hitherto  been,  not  for  independ- 
ence, but  for  constitutional  liberty.  But  the  hostile  measures 
of  the  British  government  produced  a  strong  sensation  in  the 
Colonies,  and  they  soon  began  to  think  seriously  of  dissolving 
entirely  their  allegiance  to  the  mother  country.  A  great  and 
sudden  change  now  took  place  in  the  public  mind,  which  was, 
in  part,  brought  about  by  a  series  of  papers  written  by  Thomaa 
Paine,  and  published  under  the  signature  of  Common  Sense,  the 


UNITED   STATES.  287 

design  of  which  was  to  prove  the  expediency  and  necessity  of 
a  declaration  of  independence.  On  the  7th  of  June,  a  motion 
was  made,  in  congress,  by  Richard  Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia,  for 
declaring  the  Colonies  free  and  independent.  A  committee, 
consisting  of  Jefferson,  Adams,  Franklin,  Sherman,  and  Living- 
ston, was  appointed  to  prepare  a  Declaration  of  Independence  ; 
and,  after  a  full  discussion,  the  question  was  carried,  by  a  vote 
nearly  unanimous,  on  the  memorable  4.th  of  July,  1776. 

43.  The  Declaration  thus  concludes :  "  We,  therefore,  the 
representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in  general 
congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the 
world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and 
by  the  authority  of  the  good  people  of  these  Colonies,  solemnly 
publish  and  declare,  that  these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of 
right  ought  to  be.  Free  and  Independent  States  ;  that  they  are 
absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  that 
all  political  connection  between  them  and  the  state  of  Great 
Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved  ;  and  that,  as  free 
and  independent  states,  they  have  full  power  to  levy  war,  con- 
clude peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce,  and  to  do 
all  other  acts  and  things  which  independent  states  ought  to  do. 
And  for  the  support  of  this  declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on 
the  protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to 
each  other  our#ves,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor." 


SECTION  IV. 

Revolutionary  War  continued  ;  —  Battles  of  Brooklyn,  White 
riains,  Trenton,  Princeton,  Bennington,  Brandywine,  Ger- 
mantown,  Stilhoater ;  Surrender  at  Saratoga ;  Battles  of 
Monmouth,  Rhode  Island,  Camden,  Cow-Pens,  Guilford, 
Euiaw  Springs  ;  Surrender  at  Yorktonm  ;  —  Independence 
acknoioledged.  —  From  A.  D.  1776  to  1783. 

1.  Before  the  evacuation  of  Boston  by  Sir  William  Howe, 
It  had  occurred  to  General  Washington,  that  the  occupation  of 
the  important  and  central  position  of  the  city  of  New  York 
would  be  a  favorite  object  with  the  British ;  and  he  had  de- 
tached General  Lee,  from  Cambridge,  to  put  Long  Island  and 
New  York  in  a  posture  of  defence.  Soon  after  the  evacuation 
he  followed  with  the  most  of  his  army. 

2.  Sir  William  Howe,  after  having  evacuated  Boston,  sailed 
with  his  army  to  Halifax,  where  he  waited  about  two  months, 
und  then  directed  his  course  towards  New  York,  and  arrived, 


288  UNITED   STATES. 

in  June,  ofT  Sandy  Hook.  He  was  soon  after  joined  by  his 
brother,  Admiral  Lord  Hoive^  with  a  reinforcement  from  Eng- 
land. General  Clinton  arrived  about  the  same  time,  with  troops 
brought  back  from  the  south.  The  British  troops,  which  were 
soon  collected,  amounted  to  upwards  of  24,000,  by  some  stated 
as  high  as  30,000.  To  meet  this  formidable  army,  Washing- 
ton had  only  between  11,000  and  12,000  men,  many  of  them 
militia,  unaccustomed  to  military  duty. 

3.  Lord  Howe,  being  commissioned  by  the  king  to  offer 
terms  of  peace  before  military  operations  were  commenced, 
sent  a  circular  letter  on  shoi'e,  directed  to  the  royal  governors 
of  the  Colonies.  This  paper  came  to  the  hands  of  General 
Washington,  who  forwarded  it  to  the  president  of  congress. 
The  terms,  which  amounted  to  nothing  more  than  a  promise  of 
pardon  and  favor  to  those  v/ho  should  return  to  their  allegi- 
ance, and  assist  in  restoring  public  tranquillity,  were  not  listened 
to.  The  Americans  feU,  that,  having  taken  up  arms  to  defend 
their  indisputable  rights,  they  were  conscious  of  no  gviilt,  and 
wanted  no  pardon.  Lord  Howe  despatched  a  letter  to  General 
Washington,  directed  to  George  Washingfon,  Esq.  ;  and  another 
was  sent  by  General  Howe,  directed  to  George  Washington, 
Sf'C.  ^'C.  SfC. ;  but  Washington  declined  to  receive  them,  or  any 
writing,  unless  directed  to  him  in  his  proper  character. 

4.  Both  sides  prepared  seriously  for  actiorif|k  On  the  27th 
of  August,  an  engagement  took  place  between  Brooklyn  and 
Flalhush.  The  Americans,  under  the  command  of  Generals 
Futnam  and  Sullivan,  being  surrounded,  and  exposed  to  the 
(ire  of  the  Hessians  in  front,  and  of  the  British  troops  in  the 
rear,  were  totally  defeated,  with  a  loss,  according  to  their  own 
statement,  of  upwards  of  1,000,  and  according  to  that  of  the 
British,  of  3,000.  Three  American  generals,  Sullivan,  Lord 
Stirling,  and  Woodhull,  felTinto  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 
whose  loss  was  only  about  300  or  400.  During  the  heat  of 
the  engagement.  General  Washington  crossed  over  from  New 
York  to  Brooklyn,  and  made  an  admirable  retreat,  on  the  night 
of  the  29th.  It  was  effected  under  the  cover  of  a  thick  fog, 
with  such  silence,  order,  and  secrecy,  that  the  British  army, 
which  was  encamped  only  a  quarter  of  a  mile  distant,  did  not 
discover  it  till  it  was  too  late  to  annoy  the  Americans. 

5.  Washington,  with  a  part  of  his  army,  retired  to  V/hile 
Plains,  where,  on  the  28th  of  October,  an  engagement  took 
place,  in  which  several  hundred  fell.  General  Howe  soon 
after  reduced  Fort  Washington,  on  the  Hudson,  containing  a 
garrison  of  upwards  of  2,800  men,  under  Colonel  Magaio. 
This  was  the  severest  blow  that  the  American  arms  had  yet 
sustained.  The  British  were  now  in  possession  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  Long  Island,  and  Staten  Island. 


UNITED  STATES.  289 

6.  Washington,  liaving  crossed  the  Hudson,  retreated  through 
New  Jersey,  by  Newark,  New  Brunswick,  Princeton,  and  Tren- 
ton ;  thence  lie  crossed  over  to  tlic  Pennsylvania  side  of  the 
Delaware,  being  closely  pursued  by  the  British  army,  under 
Lord  Cuniwallis,  who  arrived  at  the  river  just  after  tlio  Amer- 
ican army  had  eflected  the  passage.  The  British  troops,  in  the 
full  career  of  success,  were  ordered  into  winter  cantonments. 

7.  The  aspect  of  American  affairs  was  now  exceedingly 
gloomy.  The  army  was  greatly  reduced  by  the  loss  of  men 
in  killed,  wounded,  and  taken  ;  and  by  the  departure  of  those 
whose  enlistments  had  expired.  To  add  to  the  disasters.  Gen- 
eral Charles  Lee  had  been  surprised  and  taken  prisoner  at 
Baskcnridgc  ;  and  the  British  had  seized  upon  Rhode  Island. 
The  whole  number  of  troops  under  Washington,  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Delaware,  amounted  to  only  about  3,000,  many  of 
whom  were  without  shoes  or  comfortable  clothing.  In  this 
darkest  hour  during  the  war.  General  IIowc  issued  a  procla- 
mation, offering  pardon  to  all  who  would  submit  to  royal  au- 
thority ;  and  many  persons  abandoned  the  American  cause  and 
joined  the  British. 

8.  Washington,  aware  of  the  importance  of  striking  some 
successful  blow,  in  order  to  animate  the  expiring  hopes  of  the 
country,  on  the  night  of  the  25th  of  December,  crossed  the 
Delaware,  fell  gn  the  enemy,  at  Trenton^  by  surprise,  and  took 
the  whole  body,  consisting  of  about  1,000  Hessians,  whose 
commander.  Colonel  Rahl,  was  slain.  He  then  proceeded  to 
Princeton^  and  on  the  3d  of  January,  1777,  defeated  a  party 
of  British  troops,  who  lost  about  100  men ;  and  forced  about 
300  to  surrender,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  College.  In 
this  action,  General  Mercer^  of  Virginia,  was  killed.  These 
bold  and  decisive  measures  of  Washington  revived  the  droop- 
ing spirits  of  the  Americans,  and  surprised  and  confounded 
the  enemy. 

9.  During  the  gloomy  period  of  the  latter  part  of  the  year 
177G,  congress  manifested  the  greatest  firmness;  they  increas- 
ed the  power  of  Washington,  investing  him  with  supreme  and 
unlimited  command  ;  took  measures  for  raising  an  army  fcr 
three  years,  or  during  the  war;  sent  agents  to  Europe  to 
solicit  the  friendshij)  and  aid  of  foreign  powers  ;  endeavoured 
to  rouse  the  people  by  an  impressive  address  ;  and,  in  1777, 
formed  Articles  of  Confederation  between  the  Thirteen  States. 

10.  —  (1777.)  —  In  March,  General  Howe  sent  up  the  Hud- 
son a  detachment  to  destroy  some  stores  at  Peekskill ;  and  in 
April,  another  detachment  of  2,000  men,  under  General  Tnjon, 
proceeded  to  Danhury,  in  Connecticut,  destroyed  valuable 
stores  collected  there,  and  burnt  the  most  of  the  town.     During 

25 


290  UNI  1  ED   STATES. 

their  return,  there  took  place,  between  the  British  and  the  Con- 
necticut militia,  some  skirmishes,  in  one  of  which  the  American 
commander.  General  Woosler^  was  killed. 

11.  On  the  opening  of  the  campaign  in  the  spring,  the  prin- 
cipal American  army  was  increased  to  but  little  more  than 
7,000  men.  General  Howe,  after  having  attempted  in  vain  to 
provoke  Washington  to  an  engagement,  retired  from  New  .Jer- 
sey to  Staten  Island ;  afterwards  embarked  with  16,000  men 
on  board  his  ships ;  entered  the  Chesapeake,  and  landed  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  Elk  river.  It  being  obviously  his  object 
to  occupy  Philadelphia,  Washington  put  his  army  in  motion, 
in  order,  if  possible,  to  prevent  it.  On  the  11th  of  September, 
a  battle  was  fought  on  the  Brandywine,  in  which  the  American 
forces,  after  a  brave  resistance,  were  obliged  to  yield  to  supe- 
rior numbers  and  discipline,  with  the  loss  of  about  1,000  men 
in  killed,  wounded,  and  taken.  Among  the  wounded  was  the 
young  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  who  had  recently  entered  as  a 
volunteer  in  the  American  service,  and  had  been  appointed  a 
major-general.     The  loss  of  the  British  was  about  500  men. 

12.  Immediately  after  this  battle.  General  Howe  took  pos- 
session of  Philadelphia;  and  the  principal  part  of  his  army 
was  stationed  at  Germantown,  seven  miles  from  the  city.  It 
now  became  necessary  for  him  to  take  the  forts  on  the  Dela- 
ware, in  order  to  open  a  communication  with  the  Atlantic. 
This  was  effected  after  having  cost  the  British  a  loss  of  three 
or  four  hundred  men.  While  a  detachment  was  absent  to  ac- 
complish this  purpose,  Washington  attacked  the  army  at  Ger- 
mantown,  on  the  4th  of  October,  but  was  repulsed,  with  a  loss 
of  about  1,200  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners;  while 
the  loss  of  the  enemy  was  only  about  half  as  great.  After 
these  transactions,  the  British  army  went  into  winter-quarters 
in  Philadelphia. 

13.  During  these  inauspicious  operations  in  the  Middle  States, 
important  events  were  taking  place  in  the  north.  Early  in  the 
spring,  it  was  determined  in  England  to  invade  the  States 
through  Canada ;  and,  in  June,  a  British  army,  amounting  to 
7,000  men,  besides  Canadians  and  Indians,  commanded  ])y 
General  Burgoyne,  passed  up  Lake  Champlain,  and  laid  siege 
to  TicoTideroga,  which  was  abandoned  by  the  Americans  under 
General  St.  Clair.  General  Burgoyne  proceeded  to  Skcens- 
horough  [now  Whitehall^,  and  destroyed  the  American  flotilla 
and  stores ;  and  from  thence  he  led  his  army  to  Fort  Edward, 
on  the  Hudson. 

14.  While  remaining  here,  he  sent  a  detachment  of  500 
English  ti'oops  and  100  Indians,  under  Colonel  Baum,  to  de- 
stroy a  collection  of  stores  at  Bennington^  in  Vermont.     On 


UNITED   STATES.  29'. 

ihc  16th  of  August,  General  Stark,  with  about  800  Vermont 
and  New  Ilampshu'c  militia,  killed  and  took  prisoners  the  most 
of  this  detachment.  The  next  day,  a  reinforcement  of  500 
Germans,  under  Colonel  Breijman,  arrived,  and  was  also  de- 
feated by  General  Stark.  Tiie  loss  of  the  British  in  these  two 
cngairemonts  was  about  600.  A  few  days  before  tliis  battle. 
General  Herkimer  was  defeated,  on  the  Mohawk,  by  the  Brit- 
ish, under  Colonel  St.  Leger,  with  considerable  loss. 

15.  General  Burgoyne,  having  collected  his  forces  and 
stores,  crossed  the  Hudson,  and  encamped  at  Saratoga.  Gen- 
eral Gales,  who  had  recently  taken  tlie  chief  command  of  the 
American  army  in  the  northern  department,  having  concen- 
trated his  troops,  advanced  towards  the  enemy,  and  on  the 
19th  of  September,  an  obstinate  but  indecisive  engagement 
took  place  at  Stillwater,  in  which  the  Americans  lost  between 
300  and  400,  and  the  Ih'itish  about  600.  The  British  army 
was  soon  after  confined  in  a  narrow  pass,  having  the  Hudson 
on  one  side,  and  impassable  woods  on  the  other ;  a  body  of 
Americans  in  the  rear,  and  an  enemy  of  13,000  men  in  front. 

16.  In  this  exigency,  Burgoyne  resolved  to  ascertain  whether 
it  were  possible  to  dislodge  the  Americans,  and  sent  a  body  of 
1,500  men  to  reconnoitre  the  left  wing,  when  a  second  severe 
engagement  took  place,  in  which  the  British  were  worsted,  and 
General  Fraser  was  killed  ;  and  the  American  generals,  Lin- 
coln and  Arnold,  were  wounded.  Burgoyne,  after  liaving 
made  ineffectual  attempts  to  retreat,  finding  his  provisions 
nearly  exhausted,  his  troops  worn  down  with  incessant  toil, 
and  his  situation  becoming  every  hour  more  critical,  called  a 
council  of  war,  in  which  it  was  unanimously  resolved  to  capit- 
ulate;  and,  on  the  17th  of  October,  the  whole  army,  consisting 
of  5,752  men,  exclusive  of  sick  and  wounded,  surrendered  at 
Saratoga,  as  prisoners  of  war,  to  General  Gates. 

17.  The  surrender  of  Burgo};;ie  excited  the  liveliest  joy 
among  the  Americans,  and  inspired  them  with  confidence  with 
regard  to  their  ultimate  success  in  establishing  their  independ- 
ence. In  1776,  congress  had  sent  Dr.  Franklin,  Silas  Deane, 
and  Arthur  Lee,  commissioners  to  France,  to  solicit  assistance  ; 
but  though  it  was  evident  that  the  French  court  secretly  wished 
success  to  the  Americans,  yet  they  would  give  no  open  coun- 
tenance to  their  agents,  till  the  news  of  the  surrender  of  Bur- 
goyne. That  event  decided  the  negotiation  ;  and  in  February, 
1778,  treaties  of  alliance,  and  of  amity  and  commerce,  were 
signed  at  Paris.  The  news  of  this  alliance  was  received  with 
great  joy  in  America. 

18.  —  (1778.) — The  British  ministry,  after  hearing  of  the 
fate  of  their  northern  army,  began  to  speak  of  American 


292  UNITED   STATES. 

affairs  with  more  moderation  ;  and,  on  receiving  intelligence 
of  the  alliance  between  France  and  the  United  States,  their 
fears  were  increased.  In  February,  Lord  North  laid  before 
parliament  bills  for  conciliating  America ;  and  commissioners 
were  appointed,  who  arrived  in  June,  bringing  terms  of  accom- 
modation, which,  a  few  years  before,  might  have  effected  the 
object.  But  the  day  of  reconciliation  was  past ;  congress  had 
now  proceeded  too  far,  and  wpre  too  sanguine  with  regard  to 
ultimate  success,  to  listen  to  any  terms  short  of  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  independence. 

19.  At  the  opening  of  the  campaign  of  1778,  General  Howe 
went  to  England,  and  General  Sir  Henry  Clinton  succeeded 
him  as  commander-in-chief.  It  was  now  determined  by  the 
British  to  concentrate  their  forces"  in  the  city  of  Neio  York ; 
and  with  this  view  the  royal  army  left  Philadelphia  in  June, 
and  crossed  the  Delaware.  General  Washington,  penetrating 
their  design,  attempted  to  interrupt  their  progress.  The  two 
armies  met  on  the  28th  of  June,  near  Monmouth  court-house, 
in  New  Jersey,  where  a  smart  action  took  place,  in  which  the 
Americans  lost  about  230,  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  Brit- 
ish about  400.  This  day  was  remarkable  for  excessive  heat, 
which  occasioned  great  suffering  and  many  deaths  in  both  ar- 
mies. The  British  troops  retreated,  after  the  battle,  to  New 
York,  and  remained  inactive  during  the  summer. 

20.  A  French. fleet  of  12  ships  of  the  line  and  4  frigates, 
under  the  command  of  Count  (VEstaing,  arrived  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Delaware  in  July ;  and  a  plan  was  concerted  to 
attack  the  British  troops  at  Newport,  but  it  proved  unsuccess- 
ful. A  short  but  obstinate  engagement  took  place  on  Rhode 
Island,  on  the  29th  of  August,  between  the  British  under 
General  Pigot,  and  the  Americans  under  General  Sullivan.,  in 
which  each  lost  upwards  of  200  men.  The  next  day,  the 
Americans  retreated  from  4ie  island.  At  the  close  of  the 
season,  the  Fi'ench  fleet,  without  having  accomplished  anything 
of  importance,  sailed  to  the  West  Indies.  —  In  the  autumn. 
General  Clinton  sent  an  expedition  to  Georgia ;  and  on  the 
last  of  December,  the  British,  after  defeating  the  American 
force,  took  possession  of  Savannah. 

21.  —  (1779.)  —  Near  the  close  of  the  year  1778,  General 
Lincoln  was  appointed  by  congress  to  take  the  command  in  the 
southern  department ;  and,  during  the  year  1779,  the  principal 
theatre  of  the  war  was  changed  from  the  north  to  the  south. 
The  operations,  however,  were  not  of  any  decisive  conse- 
quence, though  they  gave  rise  to  various  expeditions,  in  which 
much  valor  and  skill  were  displayed.  The  exertions  of  the 
Americans  were  enfeebled  from  the  depreciation  of  their  billa 


UNITED   STATES.  293 

of  credit,  and  from  their  not  deriving  the  benefit  which  they 
had  expected  from  the  French  fleet,  which  was  unsuccessful 
in  all  its  enterprises. 

22.  Early  in  the  season.  Sir  George  Collier  and  General 
Matthews  were  sent  from  New  York  to  Virginia,  on  a  predatory 
expedition.  They  landed  at  Portsmouth^  and  destroyed  the 
shipping  and  valuable  stores  in  that  vicinity,  together  with 
many  houses.  A  similar  expedition  was  afterwards  sent 
against  the  maritime  parts  of  Connecticut,  under  the  com* 
maud  of  General  Trijon,  who  plundered  Neio  Haven,  and  burnt 
Fairfield  and  Norwa/lc. 

23.  The  British  troops  having  taken  and  fortified  Stoni/ 
Point,  an  eminence  on  the  Hudson,  an  expedition,  under  the 
command  of  General  Wayne,  was  sent,  in  July,  to  reduce  it, 
which  was  conducted  with  great  heroism,  and  the  whole  gar- 
rison surrendered.  A  similar  expedition,  under  the  command 
of  General  Loi^ell,  was  sent  against  a  British  post  at  Penohscot, 
but  it  was  unsuccessful.  General  Sullivan,  with  a  strong  force, 
invaded  the  country  of  the  Six  Nat.io7is  of  Indians,  who  had 
been  induced  to  take  part  with  the  British  against  the  Ameri- 
cans, destroyed  40  of  their  villages,  with  all  their  corn  and 
fruit-trees,  and  returned  with  little  loss. 

24.  General  Lhicoln  sent  a  detachment  of  1,500  men  to 
cross  the  Savannah,  under  the  command  of  General  Ash,  who 
was  surprised  and  defeated  at  Briar  Creek,  by  General  Pre- 
vost,  with  a  loss  of  about  300  men,  in  killed  and  taken.  This 
success  emboldened  General  Prevost  to  make  an  attempt  on 
C'harlcston,  but  it  was  unsuccessful.  Count  d''Estaing  having 
arrived  witli  his  fleet  from  the  West  Indies,  an  attack  was  made 
pn  the  British  under  the  command  of  General  Prevost,  in  Sa- 
vannah, by  a  united  force  of  French  and  Americans  ;  but  they 
were  repulsed,  with  the  loss  of  about  1,000  men,  among  whom 
was  Count  Pulaski,  a  Polish  officer  in  the  American  service. 
The  French  fleet  soon  after  departed  from  the  American  coast. 

25.  —  (1780.)  —  In  1780,  South  Carolina  was  the  principal 
theatre  of  the  war.  Sir  Henry  Clinton  sailed  from  New  York 
with  a  large  force,  and  arrived  at  Savannah  in  January.  Pro- 
ceeding thence  to  Charleston,  he  laid  siege  to  the  city  in  April, 
and,  having  prepared  to  storm  it.  General  Lincoln  was,  on  the 
17th  of  May,  compelled  to  capitulate.  The  garrison,  consist- 
ing of  about  2,500  men,  together  with  all  the  adult  male  in- 
habitants, were  surrendered  as  prisoners  of  war.  General 
Clinton  leaving  about  4,000  troops  for  the  southern  service, 
under  the  command  of  Lo7'd  Cornwallis,  returned  to  New 
York.  A  proclamation  was  issued,  inviting  the  Carolinians  to 
the  royal   standard ;    several   recruits   were,  in  consequence, 

25* 


294  UNITED  STATES. 

procured ;  but  the  great  body  of  the  people  remained  true  to 
the  cause  of  liberty  and  independence. 

26.  Charleston  being  now  in  the  possession  of  the  British, 
measures  were  taken  to  secure  the  obedience  of  the  interior 
country.  For  this  purpose,  a  considerable  force  was  sent  to 
Camden^  under  the  command  of  Lord  Rcwdon.  Several  se- 
vere skirmishes  took  place  between  small  parties,  in  one  of 
which  Colonel  Biiford  was  defeated  by  a  body  of  British 
cavalry,  under  Colonel  Tarleton ;  in  others,  the  American 
General  Sumter  distinguished  himself. 

27.  General  Gates,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  chief 
command  of  the  southern  army,  in  place  of  General  Lincoln, 
arrived  at  the  American  camp,  in  South  Cai'olina,  in  the  lattei 
part  of  July,  and  troops  were  collected  in  order  to  oppose  the 
progress  of  the  British.  Lord  Cornwallis,  hearing  of  these 
movements,  repaired  to  Camden,  to  reinforce  Lord  R.awdon. 
On  the  16th  of  August,  a  severe  engagement  took  place  be- 
tween the  two  armies,  in  which  the  Americans  were  defeated, 
with  the  loss  of  700  or  800  men,  among  whom  was  the  Baron 
dc  Kalb,  a  Prussian  in  the  American  service,  and  the  second 
officer  in  command.  The  British  lost  about  half  as  many. 
The  greater  pai-t  of  the  American  force  consisted  of  militia, 
who  fled  at  the  first  fire,  and  could  not  be  rallied.  General 
Gates,  with  the  feeble  remains  of  his  army,  retreated  to  Hills- 
borough, in  North  Carolina ;  and  Lord  Cornwallis,  for  some 
time  after  the  battle  of  Camden,  remained  inactive. 

28.  In  July,  M.  de  Ternay,  with  a  French  fleet,  consisting 
of  seven  ships  of  the  line,  besides  frigates,  and  6,000  land 
troops,  commanded  by  Count  de  Rochambeau,  arrived  at  Rhode 
Island.  This  gave  new  life  to  the  American  counsels  and 
arms ;  but  the  fleet  suddenly  returned  to  France,  and  all  hope 
of  naval  assistance  vanished.  The  land  forces,  however,  re- 
mained, and  cooperated  in  the  final  reduction  of  the  British 
army. 

29.  The  most  flagrant  instance  of  treachery  during  the  war 
occurred  this  year.  This  was  the  plot  of  General  Benedict 
Arnold  for  delivering  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  the  impor- 
tant fortress  of  West  Point,  on  the  Hudson.  Arnold  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  siege  of  Quebec,  and  also  at  Sar- 
atoga, where  he  was  severely  wounded.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  to  a  command  in  Philadelphia,  where*  his  oppressive 
conduct  had  subjected  him  to  a  trial  by  a  court  martial,  by 
which  he  was  sentenced  to  be  reprimanded.  By  these  pro- 
ceedings he  was  highly  exasperated,  and  determined  on  rC' 
venge.  General  Washington  still  valued  him  for  his  bravery 
and  former  services,  and,  at  his  request,  not  suspecting  his  in- 


UNITED   STATES.  295 

tentions,  intrusted  him  with  the  command  of  West  Point.  He 
soon  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  General  Clinton  for  the 
surrender  of  that  post ;  but  happily  the  plot  was  discovered  in 
season  to  prevent  the  disastrous  consequences  which  must  have 
followed  from  its  execution. 

30.  The  unfortunate  Alajnr  Andre,  the  British  agent  in  this 
negotiation,  being  apprehended  and  convicted  as  a  spy,  his  lifg. 
was  forfeited  by  the  laws  of  war,  and  he  was  condemned  and 
executed.  The  fate  of  this  heroic  and  amiable  young  ofllcer 
was  deeply  regi-etted  by  the  Americans,  as  well  as  by  the 
English.  Arnold  escaped  to  the  enemy,  and  received,  as  a 
reward  of  his  treason,  an  appointment  to  the  oflice  of  brigadier- 
general  in  the  British  army. 

31.  —  ( 1781.)  — The  operations  of  the  war,  during  the  cam- 
paign of  1781,  were  chiefly  in  the  south,  and  were  of  great 
importance.  In  January,  the  traitor  Arnold,  with  about  1,500 
men,  made  a  descent  upon  Virginia,  and  committed  extensive 
depredations  on  the  unprotected  coast  of  that  State. 

3"2.  In  the  autumn  of  1780,  General  Greene  was  appointed 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  American  southern  army.  The 
first  action,  after  he  assumed  the  command,  was  fought  at  the 
t'Ow-Pens,  by  the  Americans  under  Colonel  Morgan,  against 
the  English  under  Colonel  Tarleton,  who  was  defeated,  with 
the  loss  of  300  killed,  and  500  taken  prisoners.  The  loss  of 
the  Americans,  in  killed  and  wounded,  was  only  72. 

33.  The  two  armies,  under  Greene  and  Cormvallis,  met  near 
Guilford  court-house,  in  North  Carolina,  and,  on  the  15th  of 
March,  a  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  British  lost  upwards 
of  400  men ;  yet  they  remained  masters  of  the  field.  The 
loss  of  the  Americans,  who  were  mostly  militia,  was  about 
equal.  After  this  battle.  General  Greene  marched  to  Camden, 
where  Lord  Rawdon  was  fortified  with  900  men.  The  British 
commander  sallied  out  and  attacked  him.  The  loss  on  each 
side  was  between  200  and  300  men  ;  but  the  British  had  the 
advantage.  —  In  September,  General  Greene  obtained  an  im- 
portant victory  over  the  British,  under.  Colonel  Stuart,  at  the 
Eiitaw  Springs.  The  loss  of  the  enemy  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  captured,  amounted  to  about  1,000;  that  of  the  Ameri- 
cans to  550.  This  action  nearly  fmished  the  war  in  South 
Carolina.  . 

34.'  After  the  battle  of  Guilford,  Lord  Cormvallis  pro- 
ceeded towards  Virginia,  to  join  the  British  army  under  Gen- 
eral Phillips;  and,  arriving  at  Petersburg  in  May,  he  took  the 
command  of  the  united  forces.  After  some  predatory  war- 
fare, he  encamped  with  his  army  on  York  River,  at  Yorktoion 
and  Gloucester  Point,  where  he  fortified  himself  in  the  best 
manner  he  was  able. 


296  UNITED  STATES. 

35.  A  plan  of  combined  operations  against  the  British  had 
been  previously  concerted  by  Generals  Washington^  Knox, 
RochamJ^eau,  and  other  ofliccrs.  The  point  of  attack  was  not 
absolutely  determined  on  ;  but,  after  Lord  Cornwallis  had  col- 
lected a  large  army  in  Virginia,  Washington  resolved  to  con- 
centrate his  forces  against  him.  At  the  same  time,  it  was 
given  out  that  New  York  was  to  be  the  point  of  attack,  in  order 
tc  induce  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States  to  exert  themselves 
in  furnishing  supplies,  as  well  as  to  deceive  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
and  prevent  him  from  sending  reinforcements  to  Cornwallis. 
Washington  wrote  letters  to  (general  Greene  and  others,  stating 
his  intention  to  attack  New  York,  and  contrived  that  these  let- 
ters should  be  intercepted  by  the  British  commander.  The 
project  was  successful,  and  by  a  variety  of  militaiy  mancEUvres, 
in  which  he  completely  out-generalled  Clinton,  he  increased 
his  apprehensions  about  New  York,  and  prevented  his  sending 
assistance  to  Cornwallis. 

36.  Having,  for  a  considerable  time,  kept  Clinton  in  per- 
petual alarm  in  New  York,  Washington  suddenly  quitted  his 
camp  at  White  Plains,  crossed  the  Hudson  with  his  army,  and, 
passing  rapidly  through  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  arrived 
at  Elk  river,  the  head-quarters  of  a  considerable  army  under 
the  Marquis  de  Lafayette.  A  part  of  the  forces  embarked  and 
sailed  for  Virginia ;  the  rest  marched  by  land. 

37.  Clinton  was  not  informed  of  the  movements  of  Wash- 
ington till  it  was  too  late  to  pursue  him.  He  then  sent  a  strong 
detachment  under  the  traitor  Arnold,  who  had  recently  return- 
ed from  Virginia,  against  New  London  in  Connecticut.  Fori 
Gi'isivold,  which  stood  on  a  hill  in  Groton,  nearly  opposite, 
was  taken  by  a  party  of  the  British,  and  the  most  of  its  garri- 
son, together  with  Colonel  Ledyard,  the  commander,  were 
killed  or  wounded  ;  and  Nev/  London  was  afterwards  set  on 
fire  and  consumed. 

38.  At  Chester,  Washington  heard  the  cheering  news  of  the 
arrival  of  24  French  ships  of  the  line,  under  Count  de  Grasse, 
in  the  Chesapeake.  Admiral  Grai-es,  with  19  British  ships  of 
th3  line,  arrived  soon  after.  The  two  fleets  had  a  slight  en- 
gagement, in  which  the  French  had  the  advantage,  and  were 
left  masters  of  the  navigation  of  the  bay.  A  body  of  French 
troops  was  laaded  to  cooperate  with  the  An^ericans.  The 
whole  combined  force,  under  Washington,  closely  investing 
the  British  army  at  Yorktoivn,  including  continentals,  French, 
and  militia,  amounted  to  about  16,000. 

39.  The  British  army  being  blockaded  by  land  and  sea,  the 
American  forces  opened  the  first  batteries  upon  them  early  in 
October,  with  such  effect  as  to  silence  a  part  of  their  artillery 


UNITED   STATES.  297 

Two  British  redoubts  were  taken.  Tlic  second  parallel  was 
begun  on  the  night  of  tlie  11th ;  and  such  was  the  tremendous 
effect  of  the  American  artillery,  that  the  British  works  were 
demolished,  their  guns  silenced,  and  no  hope  of  relief  or  es- 
cape remained.  On  the  17th  of  October,  Lord  Cornwallis 
j)roposed  a  cessation  of  hostilities;  and,  on  the  19th,  articles 
of  capitjlatiou  were  signed,  by  which  tiie  British  army,  mili- 
tary stores,  and  shipping,  fell  into  the  hands  of  General  Wash- 
ington. The  whole  number  of  prisoners,  exclusive  of  seamen, 
amounted  to  7,073 ;  but  many  of  them,  at  the  time  of  the  sur- 
render, were  incapable  of  duty. 

40.  As  the  reduction  of  this  division  of  the  British  forces 
was  considered  as  deciding  the  war,  and  establishing  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  Slates,  the  news  was  everywhere  re- 
ceived with  emotions  of  inexpressible  joy.  Divine  service  was 
j)erformcd  in  all  the  American  brigades ;  and  the  commander- 
in-chief  recommended  that  all  who  were  not  on  duty  should 
join  in  the  worship,  "  with  a  serious  depoi'tment  and  that  sensi- 
bility of  heart  which  the  recollection  of  the  surprising  and  par- 
ticular interposition  of  Divine  Providence  in  our  favor  claims." 
A  day  of  public  thanksgiving  was  recommended  by  congress, 
and  observed  throughout  the  United  States  ;  and  General  Wash- 
ington liberated  all  persons  under  arrest,  that  all  might  partake 
in  the  general  joy. 

41.  As  no  rational  expectation,  on  the  part  of  the  British,  of 
conquering  the  United  States,  now  remained,  the  military  oper- 
ations which  succeeded  were  of  little  consequence.  In  March, 
1782,  Lord  North  resigned  his  ofhce  as  prime  minister,  and  a. 
new  cabinet  was  formed,  that  advised  the  king  to  discontinue 
the  further  prosecution  of  the  war.  General  Carleton  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  British  forces  in  America ; 
and,  on  the  30th  of  November,  provisional  articles  of  peace 
were  signed,  by  which  the  independence  and  sovereignty  of 
the  United  States  were  acknowledged.  On  the  3d  of  Septem- 
ber, 1783,  there  was  concluded,  at  Versailles,  by  Adams 
Franklin,  Jay,  and  Laurens,  on  the  part  of  the  Americans, 
and  Oswald,  on  the  part  of  the  British,  a  definitive  treaty  of 
peace,  by  which  the  thirteen  United  Colonies  were  admitted  to 
be  "  Free,  Sovereign,  and  Independent  States." 

42.  Thus  elided  the  revolutionary  war  ;  a  war  which  began 
in  the  injudicious  and  tyrannical  endeavor  to  procure  a  revenue 
from  the  Colonies,  and  which  terminated  in  their  freedom  and 
sovereignty  ;  a  war  which  cost  Great  Britain,  in  addition  to  the 
loss  of  her  Colonies,  the  sum  of  about  .£100,000,000  sterling, 
and  about  50,000  subjects ;  a  war  in  which  America  lost  many 
lives  and  much  treasure,  and  c  jured  every  hardship  and  suf- 


298  UNITED   STATES. 

fering  incident  to  so  arduous  a  struggle,  for  which  she  was  so 
ill  prepared ;  a  war,  the  issue  of  which  will  remain  an  encour- 
agement to  the  oppressed  to  endeavor  to  rid  themselves  of  op- 
pression, and  a  lesson  to  those  who,  unmindful  of  the  rights  of 
the  people,  would  lift  against  them  the  arm  of  power,  and 
force  them  to  a  compliance  with  their  unjust  demands ;  a  war, 
to  use  the  language  of  Mr.  Pitt  (the  younger),  "  which  was 
conceived  in  injustice,  nurtured  in  folly,  and  whose  footsteps 
were  marked  with  slaughter  and  devastation.  The  nation  was 
drained  of  its  best  blood  and  its  vital  resources,  for  which 
nothing  was  received  in  return  but  a  series  of  inefficient  vic- 
tories and  of  disgraceful  defeats  ;  victories  obtained  over  men 
fighting  in  the  holy  cause  of  liberty,  or  defeats  which  filled 
the  land  with  mourning  for  the  loss  of  dear  and  valuable 
relations,  slain  in  a  detested  and  impious  quarrel." 


SECTION  V. 

The  Army  disbanded :  The  Constitution  formed :  Washing- 
ton's  Administration  :  Adamsh  Administration.  —  From 
A.  D.  1783  to  1801. 

1.  When  the  American  army  was  to  be  disbanded,  new  and 
serious  difficulties  arose  concerning  the  payment  of  the  arrears 
of  their  wages  and  rations.  The  want  of  resources  to  carry 
on  the  war,  and  of  supreme  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes, 
had  driven  congress  to  the  expedient  of  emitting  vast  sums  in 
bills  of  credit,  which  depreciated  so  much  as  to  be  of  scarcely 
any  value  ;  and,  on  account  of  the  interruption  of  commerce, 
and  the  vast  quantities  of  paper  money  which  had  been  issued, 
gold  and  silver  were,  for  a  time,  almost  wholly  banished  from 
circulation.  The  depreciated  currency,  in  which  the  troops 
were  paid,  deprived  them  of  a  great  part  of  what  was  really 
their  due ;  and  neither  officers  nor  soldiers  could  make  a  de- 
cent appearance  in  point  of  dress,  while  the  families  of  many 
were  suffi^ring  at  home. 

2.  The  officers  of  the  army,  reposing  confidence  in  the 
faith  of  their  country,  remained  quiet  till  the  close  of  the  war ; 
but  much  agitation  and  alarm  were,  at  length,  fexcited  among 
them,  by  the  apprehension  that  they  were  to  be  disbanded 
without  having  a  settlement  of  their  accounts,  or  any  provision 
for  the  payment  of  what  was  due  to  them.  In  this  state  of 
feeling,  that  portion  of  the  army,  that  was  stationed  at  Neioburg^ 
was  thrown  into  alarming  agitation  by  an  address  to  the  officers 


UNITED  STATES.  299 

privately  circulated  among  thcrn,  appealing  to  their  passions, 
and  designed  to  stir  them  up  to  violent  measures. 

3.  At  this  crisis,  the  virtues  of  Washington  shone  forth  with 
peculiar  and  unrivalled  lustre.  He  assembled  the  officers ; 
exhorted  them  to  moderation  in  demanding  their  arrears ; 
promised  to  exert  all  his  influence  in  their  favor;  and  con- 
jured them,  "  as  they  valued  their  honor,  as  they  respected  the 
rights  of  humanity,  and  as  they  regarded  the  military  and 
national  character  of  the  American  States,  to  express  their  ut- 
most detestation  of  the  men  who  wore  attempting  to  open  the 
flood-gates  of  civil  discord,  and  deluge  their  rising  empire  with 
blood." 

4.  These  words,  coming  from  one  whom  they  had  been  ac- 
customed to  reverence,  were  weighty  and  decisive.  After  his 
speech,  the  officers  voted  him  an  address  of  thanks,  and  I'e- 
solved  that  they  continued  to  have  an  unshaken  confidence  in 
the  justice  of  congress  and  their  country.  Congress  had  but 
little  money,  and  no  elTectual  means  of  raising  it ;  but  they 
put  the  accounts  of  the  army  in  a  train  for  settlement ;  and 
decreed,  that  the  officers  should  receive,  after  the  end  of  the 
war,  five  years'  additional  pay,  and  each  soldier  eighty  dollars 
besides  his  wages. 

5.  The  3d  of  November  was  fixed  upon  for  disbanding  the 
army :  the  day  preceding,  Washington  issued  his  farewell  or- 
ders to  his  troops,  replete  with  friendly  advice  and  affectionate 
wishes  for  their  present  and  future  welfare.  Having  after- 
wards taken  an  affecting  leave  of  his  officers,  he  repaired  to 
Annapolis^  where  congress  was  then  sitting,  delivered  to  the 
president  his  military  commission,  and  declared  that  he  was 
no  longer  invested  with  any  public  character.  After  this  dec- 
laration, he  retired,  followed  by  the  gratitude  of  his  country 
and  the  applause  and  admiration  of  the  world,  to  his  estate  at 
Mount  Vernon^  and  addicted  himself  to  his  favorite  pursuit  of 
agriculture. 

6.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  when  the  States  were  released 
from  the  presence  of  danger,  the  government,  under  the  Arti- 
cles of  Confederation^  was  found  to  be  weak,  and  wholly  in- 
sufficient for  the  public  exigencies.  The  authority  of  congrp<!? 
was  reduced  to  a  mere  name  ;  a  large  public  debt  had  .)oen 
contracted,  but  no  provision  had  been  made  for  paying  either 
the  principal  or  the  intei'est.  As  congress  had  no  revenue, 
they  could  give  no  effectual  value  to  their  paper  currency ; 
and  the  public  securities  fell  to  a  very  small  proportion  of 
their  nominal  value,  as  it  was  regarded  as  extremely  doubtful 
whether  the  government  would  ever  be  able  to  redeem  them. 

7.  In  this  state  of  affairs,  most  of  the  army  notes  were  sold 


30D  UNITED  STATES. 

for  about  a  sixth  or  an  ciglith  of  their  nominal  value  ;  so  that  the 
brave  men  who  had  fought  the  battles  of  their  country,  and 
endured  hardships,  cold,  and  hunger,  and  who  had  repeatedly- 
received  of  congress  solemn  assurances  of  recompense  for 
their  toils  and  dangers,  were  at  last  forced  to  sell  their  securi- 
ties for  a  mere  trifle,  in  order  to  keep  their  families  from  dis- 
tressing want. 

8.  The  necessity  of  a  more  efficient  general  government 
was,  at  length,  extensively  felt ;  and,  in  accordance  with  a 
proposition  of  the  legislature  of  Virginia,  commissioners  from 
several  of  the  States  met,  in  1786,  at  AimapoJis,  to  form  a 
general  system  of  commercial  regulations.  But,  judging  that 
their  authority  was  too  limited  to  accomplish  any  desirable  pur- 
pose, they  adjourned,  with  instructions  to  advise  the  States  to 
appoint  delegates  with  more  ample  powers  to  meet  the  next 
year  at  Philadelphia. 

9.  Accordingly,  delegates  from  the  different  States  assem- 
bled in  that  city,  in  May,  1787,  and  elected  General  Washing- 
ton, who  was  a  member  of  their  body  from  Virginia,  for  their 
president.  After  four  months'  deliberation,  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution was,  on  the  17th  of  September,  unanimously  agreed 
to  by  the  members  of  the  convention ;  and,  being  presented  to 
congress,  it  was,  by  that  body,  transmitted  to  the  several  States 
for  their  consideration.  Being  accepted  and  ratified,  in  1788, 
by  eleven  members  of  the  confederacy,  it  became  the  consti- 
tution of  the  United  States.  The  two  dissenting  States  were 
North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  ;  the  former  adopted  it  in 
1789,  the  latter  in  1790. 

10.  According  to  the  constitution,  the  several  States  elected 
their  delegates  to  congress;  and,  by  a  unanimous  vote,  Wash- 
ington was  chosen  the  first  president.  When  the  appoihtment 
was  officially  announced  to  him,  although  unwilling  to  leave 
his  retirement,  he  yielded  to  the  unanimous  voice  of  his  coun- 
try ;  and  bidding  adieu  to  Mount  Vernon,  to  private  life,  and  to 
domestic  felicity,  he  proceeded,  without  delay,  to  New  York, 
where  congress  was  assembled.  In  his  progress  to  that  c.iy, 
he  was  met  by  numerous  bodies  of  people,  who  hailed  him  as 
the  father  of  his  country ;  triumphal  arches  were  erected  to 
commemorate  his  achievements ;  aged  women  blessed  him  as 
he  passed ;  and  virgins,  strewing  flowers  in  his  way,  expressed 
their  hope  that  he,  who  had  defended  the  injured  rights  of  their 
parents,  would  not  refuse  his  protection  to  their  children. 

11.  On  the  30th  of  April,  he  was  inaugurated  President  of 
the  United  States.  The  ceremony  was  performed  in  the  open 
gallery  of  the  City  Hall,  in  New  York,  where  the  oath  waa 
administered  to  him,  in  the  presence  of  a  countless  multitude 


UNITED   STATES.  301 

of  spectators.  The  importance  of  the  act,  the  novelty  of  the 
scene,  the  dignity  of  tlie  gcncrars  character,  tlic  gravity  of  his 
manner,  and  the  reverence  with  which  he  bowed  to  kiss  the 
sacred  vohmac,  impressed  upon  the  transaction  a  solemnity 
never  before  witnessed  in  America. 

12.  The  joy  of  the  nation  at  the  establishment  of  the  new 
government,  with  Washington  at  its  head,  was  scarcely  ex- 
ceeded by  that  of  any  preceding  event.  His  personal  influ- 
ence was  such  as  to  give  the  government  a  character  both  at 
home  and  abroad  ;  and  he  possessed  the  inestimable  talent  of 
collecting  the  wisest  counsellors,  and  of  selecting  the  best  opin- 
ions for  the  direction  of  his  own  conduct.  At  the  same  time 
that  he  was  elected  president,  John  Adams,  who  had  borne  a 
distinguished  part  in  the  revolution,  was  chosen  vice-president. 
The  other  principal  ofHccrs,  at  the  first  organization  of  the 
government,  were  Thomas  Jefferson,  Secretary  of  State  ;  Alex- 
ander Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  ;  Henri/  Knox, 
Secretary  of  War  ;  Edmund  Randolph,  Attorney-CJeneral ; 
Samuel  Osgood,  Postmaster-General  ;  and  John  Jay,  Chief 
Justice  of  the  United  States. 

13.  The  beneficial  efliects  of  the  new  government,  as  admin- 
istered by  Washington  and  his  assistants,  were  soon  felt.  Pub- 
lic confidence  was  restored  ;  commerce  revived  ;  the  national 
debt,  incurred  during  the  revolutionary  war,  was  funded,  and 
brought,  at  once,  to  its  par  value  ;  and  the  United  States  sud- 
denly rose  from  a  state  of  embarrassment  and  depression  to  a 
high  degree  of  national  prosperity. 

14.  In  1790,  the  country  was  involved  in  a  sanguinary  war 
with  the  Indians  to  the  north  of  the  Ohio,  who  obtained  a  vic- 
tory over  General  Harmer,  and  another  in  the  following  year 
(1791)  over  General  St.  Clair ;  but  General  Wayne,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  command  of  the  army,  completely  routed  the 
savages,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace,  in  1795,  at  Greenville. 

15.  While  the  United  States  were  engaged  in  war  with  the 
Indians,  they  were  also  involved  in  new  difficulties  by  the  con- 
vulsions of  Europe.  The  French  revolution  had  commenced, 
and  that  nation  was  under  the  wild  misrule  of  the  Direetory. 
Claims  were  made  on  this  country  for  assistance  ;  the  feelings 
of  a  large  portion  of  the  community  were  warmly  enlisted  on 
the  side  of  France,  and  would  have  urged  the  nation  into  hos- 
tilities with  England.  But  it  was  the  policy  of'-Washington's 
administration  to  remain  neutral ;  yet  this  course  of  the  gov- 
ernment met  with  opposition,  and  increased  the  hostility  of  the 
two  parties  into  whicli  the  country  had  begun  to  be  divided. 

16.  Washington,  having  been  twice  unanimously  elected 
president,  and  having  administered  the  government  with  great 

26 


302  UNITED  STATES. 

advantage  to  the  country,  near  the  close  of  his  second  term  of 
four  years,  declined  a  reelection,  in  a  valedictory  address  to  the 
people,  replete  with  maxims  of  political  wisdom,  and  breathing 
sentiments  of  the  warmest  affection  for  his  country.  At  the  ex- 
piration of  his  term,  he  again  withdrew  to  his  residence  at  Mount 
Vernon,  and  was  succeeded  in  office,  in  1797,  by  John  Adams. 

17.  During  Mr.  Adams's  administration,  the  French  revolu- 
tionary government,  disappointed  in  its  object  of  engaging  the 
United  States  in  the  war  with  England,  pursued  a  course  of 
insult  and  aggression  towards  them,  which  ended  in  open 
hostilities.  The  American  government,  at  length,  adopted 
measures  of  defence  and  retaliation ;  the  navy  was  increased, 
and  a  provisional  army  was  raised,  of  which  General  Wash- 
ington was  appointed  commander-in-chief.  A  few  months 
afterwards,  the  directory  government  of  France  was  over- 
thrown, and  the  disputes  between  that  country  and  this  were 
amicably  adjusted. 

18.  Not  long  after,  having  accepted  the  command  of  the 
army,  Washington  died  suddenly,  at  Mount  Vernon,  on  the 
14th  of  December,  1799,  in  the  68th  year  of  his  age.  The 
news  of  the  death  of  the  great  American  general,  statesman, 
and  patriot,  produced  an  impression  that  is  without  a  parallel 
in  America.  The  people  of  the  United  States,  in  accordance 
with  the  recommendation  of  congress,  wore  crape  on  the  left 
arm  thirty  days,  as  a  token  of  spontaneous  and  unaffected  grief; 
eulogies  were  delivered,  and  funeral  processions  celebrated, 
throughout  the  country,  —  thus  exhibiting  the  affecting  and  sub- 
lime spectacle  of  a  nation  in  mourning  for  the  loss  of  one 
whom  they  had  been  accustomed  to  regard  as  the  father  of  his 
country. 

19.  For  several  years,  the  nation  had  been  much  agitated 
by  the  conflicts  of  parties.  At  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the 
federal  constitution,  those  in  favor  of  it  were  styled  Federal- 
ists., and  those  against  it.  Anti-federalists ;  but  the  two  parties 
were  afterwards  generally  designated  by  the  names  of  Feder- 
alists and  Democrats  or  Rcjmhlicans.  These  parties  differed 
from  each  other,  both  with  regard  to  the  foreign  relations  of 
the  country,  and  on  various  subjects  of  domestic  policy.  The 
federalists  accused  the  republicans  of  an  undue  partiality  for 
France  ;  and  the  latter  charged  the  former  with  a  similar  par- 
tiality for  Great  Britain.  A  commercial  treaty  with  Great 
Britain,  negotiated  by  Mr.  Jay.,  in  1794,  was  severely  cen- 
sured by  the  republicans,  and  increased  the  animosities  of  the 
parties. 

20.  Many  of  the  measures  of  Mr.  Adams's  administration, 
relating  both  to  foreign  and  domestic  policy,  met  with  much 


UNITED   STATES.  303 

opposition.  Some  of  the  acts  wliich  excited  the  most  dissat- 
isfaction, were  those  of  raising  a  standing  army,  imposin""  a 
direct  tax,  and  enacting  the  "  alien  and  sedition  laws."  In 
1801,  a  revolution  took  place  in  the  administration  of  public 
atfairs ;  and  the  republican  party,  having  become  the  majority, 
succeeded  in  elevating  their  candidate,  Thomas  Jefferson,  to 
the  presidency,  in  opposition  to  Mr.  Adams. 


SECTION  VI. 

Jefferson's  Administration :  Madison'' s  Administration ;  War 
tcith  Great  Britain  :  —  Monroe^s  Administration  :  Adams''s 
Administration.  —  From  A.  D.  1801  to  1829. 

1.  The  great  measure  of  the  first  term  of  Mr.  Jefferson's 
administration  was  the  acquisition  and  annexation  to  the  United 
States  of  the  great  country  of  Louisiana^  which  was  purchased 
of  France  for  the  sum  of  $  15,000,000.  This  countiy  was 
first  colonized  by  the  French  in  1699.  In  1762,  it  was  ceded 
by  France  to  Spain  ;  and,  in  1800,  it  was  ceded  back  by  Spain 
to  France. 

2.  At  the  time  when  Mr.  Jefferson  was  raised  to  the  presi- 
dency, the  state  of  the  country  was  highly  prosperous,  and  it 
so  continued  during  his  first  presidential  term.  The  conflicts 
between  the  two  great  political  parties,  which  had  gi'eatly  agi- 
tated the  country  during  the  preceding  administration,  still  con- 
tinued ;  but  the  party  which  sustained  Mr.  Jefferson  increased 
in  strength  to  such  a  degree,  that  he  was  reelected  by  an  al- 
most unanimous  vote. 

3.  The  war  which  had,  for  a  number  of  years,  been  raging 
between  Great  Britain  and  France,  had  involved  nearly  all  the 
nations  of  Europe.  America  endeavored  to  maintain  a  neu- 
trality towards  the  belligerents,  and  peaceably  to  carry  on  a 
commerce  with  them.  Being  the  great  neutral  trader,  she  had 
an  interest  in  extending  the  privileges  of  neutrality,  which  the 
belligerents,  on  the  contrary,  were  inclined  to  contract  within 
the  narrowest  limits. 

4.  In  May,  1806,  the  British  government  declared  all  the 
ports  and  rivei's,  from  the  Elbe  in  Germany  to  Brest  in  France, 
to  be  blockaded,  and  all  American  vessels,  trading  with  these 
interdicted  ports,  were  liable  to  seizure  and  condemnation.  In 
the  ensuing  November,  1806,  the  Emperor  of  France  issued 
his  Berlin  Decree,  declaring  the  British  islands  in  a  state  of 
blockade,  and  prohibiting  all  intercourse  with  them.      Next 


304  UNITED  STATES. 

followed,  in  November,  1807,  the  British  Orders  in  Council 
by  which  all  neutral  vessels,  trading  with  France,  were  cori« 
pelled  to  stop  at  a  British  port  and  pay  a  duty.  In  consequence 
of  this  measure,  Bonaparte  issued,  in  December,  1807,  the 
Milan  Decree^  by  which  every  vessel,  which  should  submit  to 
British  search,  or  consent  to  any  pecuniary  exactions  whatever, 
was  confiscated. 

5.  In  the  same  month  (December,  1807),  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  Mr.  Jefferson,  congress  laid  an  embargo  on  all 
the  shipping  of  the  United  States.  This  measure  was  designed 
to  retaliate  on  both  England  and  France,  and  also  to  put  the 
United  States  in  a  better  state  of  defence,  by  retaining  their 
vessels  and  seamen  at  home  ;  but,  inasmuch  as  it  annihilated 
all  foreign  commerce,  it  operated  with  great  severity  on  the 
interests  of  the  people,  and  became  unpopular ;  and  in  March, 
1809,  the  embargo  was  removed,  and  non-intercourse  with 
France  and  Great  Britain  was  substituted. 

6.  While  matters  continued  in  this  state,  new  causes  of  prov- 
ocation continually  occurred.  The  trade  of  the  United  States 
was  harassed  by  both  of  the  belligerents ;  and  the  government 
was  accused  in  Britain  of  partiality  to  France,  and  in  France 
of  pusillanimously  submitting  to  the  insults  of  Britain. 

7.  But  one  species  of  injury,  which  was  keenly  felt  and 
loudly  complained  of  in  this  country,  the  United  States  suffered 
exclusively  from  Britain.  This  was  the  impressment  of  her 
seamen,  on  board  the  American  vessels,  by  British  men-of- 
war.  The  similarity  of  language  renders  it  difficult  to  distin- 
guish American  from  British  seamen ;  but  there  is  reason  to 
believe,  that,  on  some  occasions,  the  British  officers  were  not 
anxious  to  make  the  distinction,  being  determined,  at  all  haz- 
ai'ds,  to  procure  men ;  and  American  seamen  were  compelled 
to  serve  in  the  British  navy,  and  fight  the  battles  of  Britain. 

8.  The  British,  on  the  other  hand,  complained  that  their 
seamen  escaped  on  board  American  vessels,  to  which  they 
were  encouraged,  and  where  they  were  carefully  concealed ; 
and  they  contended  for  the  right  of  searching  American  mer- 
chant vessels  for  their  own  runaway  seamen.  This  custom 
had  been  long  practised ;  was  a  fruitful  source  of  irritation ; 
and  was  submitted  to,  with  extreme  reluctance,  on  the  part  of 

.the  Americans,  who  maintained  that,  under  British  naval  offi- 
cers, it  was  often  conducted  in  the  most  arbitrary  manner, 
with  little  regard  to  the  feelings  of  those  against  whom  it  was 
enforced ;  and  that,  under  the  color  of  this  search,  native  sea- 
men were  frequently  dragged  on  board  British  vessels. 

9.  The  custom  of  searching  for  British  seamen  had  hitherto 
been  confined  to  private  vessels  ;    but,  in  1807,  it  was  ascer- 


UNITED  STATES.  305 

taincd  that  four  seamen  had  deserted  from  the  British  service, 
and  entered  on  board  the  Chesapeake.,  an  American  frigate, 
commanded  by  Commodore  Barron^  and  carrying  36  guns. 
Captain  Humphreys  of  the  Leopard,  an  English  frigate  of  50 
guns,  in  compHancc  with  the  orders  of  Admiral  Berkeley,  fol- 
lowed the  Chesapeake  beyond  tlic  Capes  of  Virginia,  and, 
after  demanding  the  deserters,  fired  a  broadside  upon  the 
American  frigate,  and  killed  and  wounded  about  20  men.  The 
Chesapeake  struck  her  colors,  and  the  four  seamen  were 
given  up. 

10.  This  outrage  occasioned  a  general  indignation  through- 
out the  country,  and  was  deemed,  by  many,  in  conjunction 
with  other  causes,  a  sufficient  ground  for  declaring  wjir.  The 
president  issued  a  proclamation,  ordering  all  British  vessels  of 
war  to  quit  the  waters  of  the  United  States,  and  forbidding  all 
intercourse  between  them  and  the  inhabitants.  The  British 
government  disavowed  the  attack  on  the  Chesapeake  ;  yet  the 
measures  taken  with  regard  to  the  affair  were  far  from  being 
satisfactory  to  the  government  of  this  conntiy. 

11.  In  1809,  Mr.  Jefferson,  having  decHned  a  reelection, 
was  succeeded  by  James  Madison,  who  had  held  the  office  of 
secretary  of  state  in  the  late  administration,  and  who  pursued 
the  same  general  policy.  At  the  commencement  of  the  new 
administration,  an  arrangement  was  made  with  Mr.  Erskine, 
the  British  minister,  by  which  the  American  government  was 
induced  to  renew  the  trade  with  England ;  but  this  arrange- 
ment was  afterwards  disavowed  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain. 
The  succeeding  negotiator,  Mr.  Jackson,  having,  soon  after  his 
arrival,  used  offensive  language,  the  president  declined  having 
any  further  correspondence  with  him.  An  unhappy  rencoun- 
ter between  the  American  and  English  ships  of  war,  the  Pres- 
ident and  the  LiLlle  Belt,  served  to  increase  the  unfriendly 
sentiments  of  the  two  countries. 

12. —  (1812.) — The  prospect  of  an  amicable  adjustment 
of  existing  difficulties,  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  continuing  to  become  daily  more  dark  and  unpromis- 
ing, congress  met,  pursuant  to  adjournment,  on  the  25th  of 
May  1812  ;  and,  on  the  1st  of  June,  the  president  sent  a  mes- 
sage to  that  body,  strongly  recommending  a  declaration  of 
war.  The  principal  grounds  for  it,  as  stated  in  the  message, 
were  the  impressment  of  American  seamen  by  the  British  ;  the 
blockading  of  the  ports  of  their  enemies  ;  the  orders  in  coun- 
cil ;  and  a  suspicion  that  the  Indians  had  been  instigated  to  acts 
of  hostility  by  British  agents. 

13.  The  bill  for  declaring  war  passed  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, by  a  vote  of  79  to  49,  and  the  senatei^  by  one  of  19 
26  * 


306  UNITED  STATES. 

to  13 ;  and  on  the  18th  of  June,  the  day  after  it  passed  tha 
senate,  it  was  signed  by  the  president.  Five  days  after  the 
declaration  of  war,  the  British  orders  in  council  were  repealed, 
in  consequence  of  the  decrees  of  Berlin  and  Milan  having  been 
revoked. 

14.  The  minority  of  congress  opposed  the  declaration  of 
war,  on  the  ground  of  its  being,  in  their  view,  unnecessary  and 
impolitic  ;  they  maintained,  also,  that  tlie  aggressions  of  the 
French  had  been  greater  than  those  of  the  English  ;  and  they 
entered  a  solemn  protest  against  the  measure.  A  considerable 
j)roportion  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  sympathized,  in 
their  views,  with  this  minority  ;  and  the  war  was,  consequently, 
prosecuted  with  much  less  energy  and  success  than  it  might 
have  been,  if  there  had  been  a  unanimity  in  its  favor. 

15.  Notwithstanding  the  length  of  time  during  which  hostil- 
ities had  been  meditated,  they  were  commenced  in  a  very  im- 
perfect state  of  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  American 
government ;  and,  in  consequence,  the  operations  of  the  Amer- 
ican armies,  by  land,  during  the  first  year,  were  wholly  un- 
successful and  disastrous. 

16.  On  the  12th  of  July,  General  Hull,  with  an  army  of 
upwards  of  2,000  men,  invaded  Canada ;  and,  on  the  16th  of 
August,  he  surrendered,  with  the  whole  of  his  troops,  to  the 
British.  A  second  attempt  to  invade  the  province  was  made 
by  General  Van  Rensselaer,  Avho,  with  about  1,000  men, 
crossed  the  Niagara,  in  November,  and  attacked  the  British  at 
Queenstoicn :  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  he  was  obliged  to 
surrender  with  his  army.  In  this  engagement  the  British  com- 
mander, General  Brock,  was  killed. 

17.  While  the  operations  of  the  troops  of  the  United  States, 
m  Canada,  were  so  extremely  unfortunate  and  mortifying, 
brilliant  success  attended  the  American  flag  on  the  ocean.  In 
August,  the  frigate  Constituf.io7i,  commanded  by  Captain  Hull, 
captured  the  British  frigate  the  Guerriere.  In  October,  the 
frigate  United  States,  commanded  by  Captain  Decatur,  took 
the  British  frigate  the  Macedonian.  In  November,  the  British 
sloop  the  Frolic,  was  captured  by  the  sloop  Wasp,  under  Cap- 
tain Jones ;  but  the  Wasp  was  immediately  after  taken  by  tiie 
Poictiers,  a  British  seventy-four.  In  December,  the  Constitu- 
tion, commanded  by  Captain  Bainbridgc,  captured  the  British 
frigate  the  Java.  In  these  four  engagements,  the  total  loss  of 
the  British,  in  killed  and  wounded,  was  423  ;  that  of  the 
Americans,  only  73. 

18.  —  (1813.)  — The  operations  of  the  war  during  this  year 
were  productive  of  alternate  successes  and  reverses.  In  Janu- 
ary, a  detachmfent  of  about  800  men,  under  General  Winchester 


UNITED   STATES.  307 

w^as  surprised  and  defeated  by  the  British  and  Indians, 
under  General  Proctor,  at  Frcnchtown,  on  the  river  Raisin. 
Those  who  had  not  fallen,  amounting  to  about  500,  surren- 
dered prisoners,  a  great  part  of  whom  were  inhumanly  massa- 
cred by  the  Indians. 

19.  In  April,  a  detachment  of  1,700  American  troops,  under 
General  Pike,  after  some  severe  fighting,  took  possession  of 
Yor/c,  in  Upper  Canada,  and  destroyed  a  large  quantity  of 
public  stores.  By  the  explosion  of  a  mine,  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  General  Pike,  together  with  about  100  Americans, 
was  killed.  The  British  lost  about  700  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
captured. —  Colonel  Dudley,  being  detached  from  Fort  Meigs, 
with  800  men,  to  attack  the  enemy's  battery,  was  surrounded 
by  a  large  army  of  Indians,  under  Tecumseh,  and  was  defeated, 
with  the  loss  of  most  of  his  troops. 

20.  In  May,  an  attack  was  made  upon  Sackett''s  Harbor  by 
about  1,000  British  troops,  under  Sir  George  Prevost,  who 
was  repulsed,  with  considerable  loss,  by  the  Americans  under 
General  Broion.  Two  days  before  this  event,  Fort  George, 
in  Canada,  was  taken  by  the  Americans  under  General  Boyd 
and  Colonel  Miller.  The  British,  who  were  commanded  by 
General  Vincent,  lost  nearly  1,000  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
captured.  A  few  days  afterwards,  Geiierals  Chandler  and 
Winder,  who  had  advanced  with  a  considerable  force,  were 
surprised  in  the  night,  not  far  from  the  fort,  by  the  British  un- 
der General  Vincent,  and  were  both  taken  prisoners. 

21.  The  most  brilliant  achievement,  during  this  year,  was 
the  defeat  of  the  British  naval  force  on  Lake  Erie,  in  Septem- 
ber, by  Commodore  Perry.  The  British  fleet  consisted  of  6 
vessels,  having  63  guns  ;  that  of  the  Americans,  of  9  vessels, 
with  56  guns.  The  conflict,  which  lasted  three  hours,  was  tre- 
mendous ;  but  the  victory  was  complete.  The  British  force, 
being  reduced  to  almost  a  total  wreck,  fell  entirely  into  the 
hands  of  the  Americans,  who  were,  by  this  achievement,  ren- 
dered masters  of  the  lake. 

22.  After  tliis  victory.  General  Harrison  embarked  his  main 
army  on  board  the  American  squadron,  landed  on  the  Canadian 
shore,  and  in  October,  near  the  Thames,  defeated  and  dispersed 
the  British  army  under  General  Proctor.  In  this  action  the 
enemy  sustained  a  severe  loss,  and  the  celebrated  Indian  chief 
Tecumseh  was  killed.  But  the  Americans  were  afterwards  re- 
pulsed at  Williamsburg. 

23.  Great  preparations  had  been  made  for  the  conquest  of 
Canada,  under  Generals  Wilkinson  and  Hampton  ;  but  nothing 
of  importance  was  effected  ;  and  a  disagreement  between  the 
two  generals  prevented  that  concert  which  was  necessary  to 


308  UNITED  STATES. 

insure  success.  The  village  of  Newark,  in  Canada,  being 
burnt  by  tlie  Americans,  the  British  crossed  over,  and,  in  re- 
taliation, burnt  Buffalo,  which  was  then  a  small  town,  and  some 
other  villages.  During  this  year,  the  British,  under  Admiral 
Cockhurn,  committed  various  depredations  in  the  south,  and  on 
the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake  ;  but  they  were  repulsed  at  Cra- 
lieu  Island,  near  Norfolk. 

21.  The  English  were  more  successful  on  the  ocean  during 
this  year,  than  during  the  preceding.  The  American  flag, 
however,  was  not,  in  any  instance,  disgraced ;  nor  were  the 
American  ships  and  men  found  inferior  to  those  of  Britain  of 
equal  force.  In  February,  the  Hornet,  commanded  by  Cap- 
tain Lawrence,  captured  the  British  sloop  the  Peacock,  in 
June,  the  Chesapeake,  under  Captain  Lawrence,  was  captured 
by  the  Shannon,  commanded  by  Captain  Broke.  In  August, 
the  Argus  was  captured  by  the  English  sloop  the  Pelican ; 
and,  in  September,  the  British  brig  the  Boxer  surrendered  to 
the  Enterprise. 

25.  —  (1814.)  —  The  campaign  of  1814  was  distinguished 
by  more  severe  fighting  in  Canada  than  had  before  occurred. 
On  the  2d  of  July,  the  Americans  under  General  Broiou, 
having  taken  Fort  Erie,  proceeded  to  attack  the  British  under 
General  Drummond,  at  Chipperoa,  where,  on  the  5th,  an  obsti- 
nate engagement  took  place,  which  terminated  in  favor  of  the 
Americans.  On  the  25th  of  the  month,  a  more  sanguinary 
and  warmly  contested  battle  was  fought,  at  Bridgewater,  by 
the  Americans  under  Generals  Brown  and  Scott,  and  the  Brit- 
ish under  Generals  Drumviond  and  Riall.  The  British  were 
forced  to  retreat,  Avith  the  loss  of  about  900  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  taken.  The  American  army  was  also  so  much  weakened 
that  it  fell  back  to  Fort  Erie,  which  the  British  afterwards  at- 
tempted to  storm  ;  but  they  were  repulsed  with  a  severe  loss. 
This  was  the  last  important  operation  of  the.war  on  this  frontier. 

26.  Sir  George  Preoost,  having  received  large  I'einforce- 
ments  from  the  troops  which  had  been  employed  under  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  in  Spain,  now  advanced  with  an  army 
of  14,000  men,  to  carry  offensive  war  into  the  United  States ; 
and  his  first  attempt  was  on  Plattsburg.  The  operations  of 
this  army  were  accompanied  by  those  of  the  British  naval 
force  on  Lake  Champlain,  consisting  of  95  guns  and  1,050 
men,  commanded  by  Commodore  Downie.  This  force  was  to- 
tally defeated  by  the  American  fleet,  having  86  guns  and  826 
men,  under  the  command  of  Commodore  Macdonoiigh.  Dur- 
ing the  engagement  between  the  fleets,  Sir  George  Prevost 
attacked  the  forts  of  Plattshurg,  but  was  effectually  repulsed  by 
the  Americans  under  General  Macomb.     The  loss  of  the  Brit- 


UNITED   STATES.  309 

ish,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  deserters,  was  estimated  at  2,500 ; 
while  that  of  the  Americans,  both  on  the  land  and  water,  was 
only  231. 

27.  In  August,  a  British  fleet  of  about  60  sail  arrived  in  the 
Chesapeake,  and  an  army  of  about  5,000  men,  under  General 
Ross^  landed  in  the  Paiuxent^  about  forty  miles  from  the  city 
of  Washinglon.  Having  easily  put  to  flight  the  American 
militia,  under  General  Winder^  at  Bladenslmrg,  the  enemy 
entered  Washinglon,  burnt  the  capitol,  the  president's  house, 
and  other  public  buildings,  and  retired  without  molestation. 
In  September,  about  a  fortnight  after  this  transaction,  the  Brit- 
ish army,  to  the  number  of  about  7,000,  under  General  Ross 
and  Admiral  Cockburn,  made  a  similar  attempt  on  Baltimore ; 
but,  after  gaining  some  advantages,  they  were  finally  repulsed. 
In  this  attempt  General  Ross  was  killed. 

28.  On  the  ocean,  the  American  flag  maintained  its  reputa- 
tion, and  in  no  instance  yielded  to  an  inferior  or  an  equal 
force.  The  American  frigate  the  Essex,  however,  was  cap- 
tured by  the  British  frigate  the  Phabe  and  tlie  sloop  Cherub, 
of  a  superior  force ;  and  the  frigate  President,  by  a  squadron 
of  the  enemy ;  but  the  British  vessels  of  war  the  Epervier, 
Avon,  Reindeer,  Cyane,  Levant,  and  Penguin,  were  taken  by 
the  Americans. 

29.  As  the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
was  a  branch  of  the  great  European  quarrel,  it  naturally  fell 
to  the  ground  when  that  quarrel  ceased.  The  matters  in  dis- 
pute between  the  two  countries  related  to  maritime  and  neutral 
rights  ;  but,  with  regard  to  these  subjects,  there  was  no  longer 
any  cause  of  dificrence,  as  the  world  was  at  peace.  On  the 
restoration  of  peace  in  Europe,  both  parties  began  to  think 
seriously  about  ending  the  war ;  and  the  Emperor  of  Russia 
offered  his  services  ns  mediator,  which  were,  however,  declined 
by  the  British  government,  and  a  direct  negotiation  at  London 
or  Gottenburg  was  proposed.  In  April,  1813,  commissioners, 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  were  appointed  to  meet  others 
from  England  at  Gottenburg ;  but  the  place  of  meeting  was 
afterwards  changed  to  Ghent,  where  a  treaty  was  finally  signed 
on  the  24th  of  December,  1814. 

30.  Wiiile  the  negotiation  was  in  progress,  a  large  arma- 
ment, under  the  command  of  Sir  Edward  Packcnham,  was 
fitted  out  by  Great  Britain  for  an  attack  on  New  Orleans,  with 
the  intention,  apparently,  of  ending  the  war  with  some  eclat; 
but  the  design  met  with  a  most  signal  and  fatal  defeat.  The 
British,  after  enduring  great  fatigues  and  numerous  difficulties, 
and  sustaining  some  desperate  encounters,  assaulted  the  worka 


810  UNITED  STATES. 

thrown  up  for  the  defence  of  the  city,  on  the  8th  of  January^ 
1815,  when  they  were  dreadfully  cut  to  pieces  and  repulsed  by 
the  Americans  under  General  Jackson.  The  loss  of  the  enemy, 
in  killed,  wounded,  and  captured,  amounted  to  about  2,600; 
among  the  slain  were  the  commander-in-chief.  General  Pack- 
enkam,  and  other  principal  officers.  The  loss  of  the  Amer- 
icans was  only  seven  killed  and  six  wounded.  This  was  the 
last  important  operation  of  the  war. 

31.  In  1814,  the  northeastern  States  were  in  a  very  exposed 
condition,  being  destitute  of  protection  from  the  national  troops, 
and  great  alarm  was  excited  among  the  people.  At  this  junc- 
ture, the  legislatui'e  of  Massachusetts  proposed  a  conference, 
by  delegates  from  the  legislatures  of  the  New  England  States, 
and  of  any  of  the  other  States  that  might  accede  to  the  meas- 
ure, in  order  to  devise  and  recommend  to  these  States  measures 
for  their  security  and  defence.  A  convention.,  composed  of 
distinguished  men,  delegates  from  the  New  England  States, 
accordingly  met  at  Hartford.,  in  Connecticut,  on  the  15th  of 
December  ;  and,  after  a  session  of  three  weeks,  they  published 
the  result  of  their  deliberations.  The  commissioners  of  the  con- 
vention, who  were  sent  to  confer  with  the  national  government, 
and  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  arrived  at  Washing- 
ton about  the  same  time ;  so  that  the  war  and  all  proceed- 
ings relating  to  its  continuance  were,  at  length,  happily  termi- 
nated. 

32.  In  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  no  allusion  is  to  be  found  to  the 
causes  of  the  war ;  nor  was  any  attempt  made  to  settle  the 
vexed  question  respecting  the  right  of  Great  Britain  to  impress 
her  seamen  on  board  American  vessels,  or  any  of  the  other 
points  in  dispute,  each  party  being  left,  precisely  as  it  was  be- 
fore the  war,  in  possession  of  all  its  real  or  imaginary  rights. 
In  case,  therefore,  that  Great  Britain  should  be  engaged  in 
another  European  war,  the  questions  between  the  two  coun- 
tries, which  were,  for  a  time,  set  at  rest  by  peace,  might  be 
again  revived,  and  lead  to  new  difficulties.  But  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  both  nations  will  see,  that  it  is  their  interest,  as  well 
as  duty,  to  cultivate  friendly  relations,  to  avoid  every  cause  of 
hostile  contention,  and  to  draw  closer  every  tie,  whether  of 
consanguinity,  religion,  or  interest,  which  may  firmly  unite 
them  in  a  lasting  peace. 

33.  When  the  waste  of  life  and  of  property,  the  amount  of 
crime  and  of  suifering,  which  loar  always  occasions,  and  the 
little  chance  there  is,  that,  by  an  appeal  to  arms,  the  wrongs 
of  an  injured  nation  will  be  properly  redressed,  are  duly  con- 
sidered, every  Christian  patriot  and  every  philanthropist  must 


UNITED   STATES.  311 

desire  that  some  better  method  of  settling  national  disputes 
may  be  established  and  carried  into  practice  ;  —  some  method 
which  would  not  only  be  free  from  the  multiplied  evils  of  war, 
but  by  which  an  adjustment  of  the  points  in  dispute  might  be 
made  more  on  a  basis  of  law  and  ecpiity. 

34.  Mr.  Madison,  after  having  filled  the  office  of  presidcn? 
eight  years,  was  succeeded,  in  1817,  by  James  Monroe^  who  had 
held  the  office  of  secretary  of  state  during  most  of  the  time  of 
Mr.  Madison's  administration.  In  1821,  Mr.  Monroe  wanted 
only  a  single  vote  of  a  unanimous  reelection. 

35.  During  Mr.  Monroe's  administration,  the  United  States 
were  at  peace,  with  the  exception  of  a  war  with  the  Seminole 
and  Creek  Indians ;  and  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  which 
had  been  interrupted  by  the  war  with  England,  was  gradually 
restored. 

36.  In  1821,  Florida  was  ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United 
States,  for  the  sum  of  $5,000,000. 

37.  The  admission  of  the  State  of  Missouri  into  the  union, 
which  took  effect  in  1821,  gave  rise  to  a  very  spirited  discus- 
sion of  the  question  of  slavery^  —  a  subject  which  has  ever 
since  continued  to  occasion  political  excitement.  The  bill  for 
its  admission,  without  restriction  of  slavery,  passed  the  house 
of  representatives,  after  a  long  and  exciting  debate,  by  a  vote 
of  90  to  86.  It  was  accompanied  by  a  declaration  prohibiting 
slavery  in  the  territories  north  of  lat.  36.30  N.  This  is  what 
has  been  since  called  "  the  Missouri  compromise." 

38.  In  August,  1824,  General  Lafnyette,  having  received  an 
invitation  from  congress,  landed  at  New  York,  on  a  visit  to  the 
United  States  ;  passed  throUj^a  twenty-four  of  the  States  ;  was 
everywhere  enthusiastically  received  as  the  nation's  guest ; 
was  present,  on  the  17th  of  June,  1825,  at  the  celebration  of 
the  50th  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill ;  and,  in  Sep- 
tember, sailed  for  France.  In  the  following  December,  con- 
gress made  him  a  grant  of  8200,000,  and  a  township  of  land 
in  Florida,  in  consideration  of  his  revolutionary  services. 

39.  In  1825,  Mr.  Monroe  was  succeeded  by  John  Quincy 
Ada?ns,  who  had  held  the  office  of  secretary  of  state  during 
Mr.  Monroe's  administration.  In  the  presidential  election  of 
1824,  there  were  four  candidates  for  the  presidency,  —  John 
Quincy  Adams,  Andreio  Jackson,  William  H.  Craioford,  and 
Henry  Clay.  Of  the  electoral  votes,  Jackson  received  99, 
Adams  84,  Crawford  41,  and  Clay  37.  There  being  no  choice 
by  the  people,  the  election  devolved  upon  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives ;  and  Adams  was  elected,  having  received  the  votes 
of  13  States,  Jackson  7,  and  Crawford  4. 


312  UNITED  STATES. 

40.  During  Mr.  Adams's  administration,  the  country  was  al 
peace  and  in  a  highly  prosperous  condition ;  and  advantageous 
treaties  of  peace  and  commerce  were  negotiated  with  various 
foreign  nations.  The  policy  of  Mr.  Monroe's  administration 
was  continued  and  greatly  extended,  in  strengthening  every 
arm  of  the  national  defence,  by  erecting  light-houses,  arsenals, 

•fortifications,  &c. ;  by  increasing  the  naval  establishment ;  and 
especially  by  improving  the  intercommunication  between  the 
different  parts  of  the  country.  In  these  internal  improvements 
more  was  effected  by  the  aid  of  the  government,  during  Mr. 
Adams's  administration,  than  during  the  administrations  of  all 
his  predecessors. 

41.  The  national  government  had  agreed  to  extinguish,  for 
the  benefit  of  Georgia,  the  Indian  title  to  the  lands  held  by  the 
Chci^okees  and  Creeks  in  that  State.  In  the  last  year  of  Mr. 
Monroe's  administration,  the  Creeks,  in  a  national  council,  re- 
fused to  part  with  their  territory.  After  the  council  broke  up, 
however,  a  {ew  of  the  chiefs  remained,  and  were  induced  to 
make  a  treaty,  ceding  the  lands  to  the  United  States.  This 
treaty  was  repudiated  by  the  Creek  nation  as  an  act  of  fraud ; 
but  the  governor  of  Georgia  determined  to  act  upon  it  as  valid. 

42.  At  this  juncture,  the  Indians  appealed  for  protection  to 
the  president  of  the  United  States,  who  interposed  to  protect 
them  from  gross  injustice.  It  was,  however,  deemed  expedient 
to  obtain  the  lands  in  question  by  fair  purchase.  This  was 
subsequently  accomplished ;  and,  in  a  few  years,  the  Indians 
were  removed  to  territories  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

43.  In  1828,  a  new  tariff  luio  was  enacted,  imposing  duties 
on  imports,  with  a  view  to  afford  protection  to  American  man- 
ufactures. The  principle  of  a  protective  tariff  has  met  with 
strong  opposition,  especially  in  the  southern  States  ;  and  it  has, 
ever  since  the  passage  of  this  act  of  congress,  unhappily  con- 
tinued to  be  a  subject  of  contention  between  opposite  political 
parties. 

44.  On  the  4th  of  Jul;/,  1826,  JoJm  Adams  and  Thomas 
Jefferson  died ;  the  former  in  his  91st  year,  and  the  latter  in 
his  84th.  These  distinguished  men  stood  first  and  second  on 
the  committee  of  five  appointed  by  congress  to  prepare  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  in  1776  ;  and,  of  this  instrument, 
Mr.  Jefferson  was  the  writer,  and  Mr.  Adams  the  most  power- 
ful advocate.  They  afterwards  held,  in  succession,  the  office 
of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  were  also  at  the  head 
of  the  two  opposite  parties,  into  which  the  qpuntry  was  long 
divided ;  and  they  finally  passed  out  of  the  world  together,  on 
the  50th  anniversary  of  the  day  which  their  Declaration  had 
rendered  illustrious  as  the  era  of  American  Independence. 


UNITED  STATES.  313 


SECTION  VII. 

Jacksoii's  Administration :  Van  Buren''s  Administration : 
Harrison; — Tyler'' s  Administration:  PoJk^s  Administra- 
tion ;  War  with  Mexico:  Taylor. —  From  A.  D.  1829  to 
1849. 

1.  In  1829,  Mr.  Adams  was  succeeded  by  Andreio  Jackson^ 
who  had  been  principally  known  for  his  military  achievements, 
and  who,  in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  and  in  conducting  a 
war  with  the  Seminole  and  Creek  Indians,  had  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  military  commander. 

2.  General  Jackson's  administration  was  signalized  by  a 
more  extensive  removal  of  office-holders  than  had  been  prac- 
tised by  any  of  his  predecessors ;  by  a  persevering  hostility  to 
the  United  States  Bank,  which  terminated  in  the  overthrow  of 
that  institution ;  and  by  opposition  to  the  policy  of  making  ap- 
propriations for  internal  improvements.  Several  bills  making 
such  appropriations,  and  also  a  bill  for  the  renewal  of  the 
charter  of  the  United  States  Bank,  which  passed  both  houses 
of  congress,  he  returned  with  his  veto. 

3.  In  November,  1832,  a  convention  of  delegates,  called  by 
the  legislature  of  South  Carolina,  assembled  at  Columbia,  and 
pronounced  the  acts  of  congress  of  1828  and  1832,  imposing 
duties  on  foreign  imports,  for  the  protection  of  domestic  manu- 
factures, unconstitutional,  void,  and  not  binding  upon  the  citizens 
of  that  State.     The  remedy  proposed  was  termed  nullification. 

4.  In  the  December  following.  President  Jackson  issued  a 
proclamation,  containing  an  exposition  of  the  principles  and 
powers  of  the  general  government,  and  expressing  a  determi- 
nation to  maintain  the  laws.  The  Governor  of  South  Carolina 
issued  a  counter-proclamation,  calling  on  the  people  to  resist 
any  attempt  to  enforce  the  tariff  laws.  The  president  then  ad- 
dressed a  message  to  congress,  recommending  such  measures 
as  would  enable  the  executive  to  suppress  the  spirit  of  insubor- 
dination, and  sustain  the  laws  of  the  United  States. 

5.  Everything,  for  a  time,  wore  a  threatening  aspect ;  but 
more  moderate  counsels  at  length  prevailed.  An  appeal  was 
made  to  South  Carolina  by  the  general  assembly  of  Virginia  ; 
Mr.  Clay  introduced  a  new  bill,  modifying  the  tariff,  called  the 
"  compromise  act,"  which  was  enacted  into  a  law  on  the  1st 
of  March,  1833  f  and  the  convention  of  South  Carolina  as- 
sembled on  the  11th  of  March,  and  repealed  the  nullifying 
ordinance. 

6.  In  March,  1833,  President  Jackson,  having  been  reelected, 

27 


314  UNITED   STATES. 

entered  on  his  second  term  ;  and,  in  the  following  September, 
he  directed  the  secretary  of  the  treasury,  Mr.  Duane,  to  re- 
move the  public  funds  or  deposits  from  the  United  States  Bank. 
This  Mr.  Duane  having  declined  to  do,  he  was  removed  ;  and 
Mr.  Taney  was  appointed  in  his  place.  By  the  latter  the  de- 
posits were  removed  and  placed  in  several  State  banks.  A 
resolution,  strongly  censuring  the  president  for  this  measure, 
was  passed  by  the  senate  in  1834;  and,  in  1837,  the  senate 
voted  to  expunge  this  resolution  from  their  journal. 

7.  In  183-1,  the  country  was  disturbed  by  an  apprehension  of 
i)  hostile  collision  with  France.  The  French  government,  by  a 
treaty  negotiated  in  1831,  had  agreed  to  make  indemnity  for 
spoliations  made  on  American  commerce  during  the  reign  of 
Napoleon  ;  but  it  had  failed  to  fulfil  its  engagements.  The 
president  recommended  (1834)  reprisals  upon  French  com- 
merce. The  measure,  however,  was  not  adopted  by  congress  ; 
and  the  danger  of  open  hostility  was  happily  removed  by  the 
action  of  the  French  government  in  making,  in  the  following 
year,  provision  to  fulfil  its  stipulations. 

8.  On  the  16th  of  December,  1835,  a  great  fire  broke  out 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  which  destroyed  the  most  of  that 
part  of  the  city  which  is  the  seat  of  its  principal  commercial 
transactions.  This  was  the  most  destructive  fire  that  ever  took 
place  in  this  country ;  and  the  loss  was  estimated  at  upwards 
of  $17,000,000. 

9.  The  puhlic  debt,  of  the  United  States  in  1816,  after  the 
close  of  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  amounted  to  upwards  of 
$127,000,000.  After  the  return  of  peace,  the  debt  was  rapidly 
reduced  ;  and,  in  1836,  it  having  been  all  paid  off,  it  was  com- 
puted, that,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1837,  there  would  remain 
in  the  treasury  a  surplus  revenue  of  $27,000,000.  An  act 
was  passed  by  congress  (1836)  for  distributing  this  surplus 
(reserving  $5,000,000),  to  be  paid,  in  four  instalments,  to  the 
several  States,  in  proportion  to  their  j"epresentation  in  the  sen- 
ate and  house  of  representatives. 

10.  Near  the  close  of  the  year  1835,  a  conflict  commenced 
with  the  Seminole  Indians,  who  refused  to  remove  from  Florida 
to  lands  appropriated  to  them  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the 
United  States  became  involved  in  a  long  and  expensive  war 
with  them ;  but,  in  1842,  having  been  finally  subdued,  they 
were  removed.  The  expenses  of  this  war,  from  1836  to 
1840  inclusive,  as  officially  stated,  amounted  to  upwards  of 
$15,000,000,  more  than  three  times  as  much  as  was  paid  to 
Spain  for  the  country  of  Florida. 

11.  Andrew  Jackson  was  succeeded,  in  1837,  by  Martin 
Van  Buren,  who  had  held  the  office  of  vice-president  the  pre- 


UNITED   STATES.  SI? 

ceding  four  years,  and  wlio,  in  his  administration,  continued 
the  same  general  poHcy  as  that  of  his  predecessor. 

12.  In  the  spring  of  this  year  (1837)  commenced  the  great- 
est commercial  revulsion  ever  known  in  this  country.  A  spirit 
of  extravagant  speculation  had,  for  some  years,  prevailed  ;  a 
multitude  of  State  banks  had  been  chartered,  by  means  of 
which  there  was  a  great  expansion  of  paper  currency ;  nu- 
merous and  very  expensive  ])ublic  works,  as  canals,  railroads, 
iSic,  were  undertaken  by  States  and  incorporated  companies , 
immense  importations  of  foreign  goods  were  made;  and  rea. 
estate,  especially  in  cities  and  villages,  was  raised  far  above 
its  intrinsic  value.  At  length  the  crisis  came,  with  tremendous 
effect.  The  panic  extended  throughout  the  country,  and  all 
confidence  and  all  credit  were  at  an  end. 

13.  On  the  10th  of  May,  all  the  banks  in  the  city  of  New 
York  suspended  specie  payment ;  and  the  suspension  soon 
became  general  throughout  the  country.  The  mercantile 
classes  were  subjected  to  the  greatest  embarrassments,  and 
failures  were  numerous  in  all  the  commercial  cities.  In  the 
city  of  New  York  alone,  the  list  of  failures,  including  only  the 
more  considerable  ones,  exhibited  an  amount  af  upwards  of 
$60,000,000. 

14.  The  national  government  became  involved  in  the  gen- 
eral embarrassment,  inasmuch  as  the  banks  in  which  the  public 
deposits  were  placed,  had,  like  the  rest,  suspended  specie  pay- 
ment. In  this  state  of  affairs,  the  president  convoked  an  extra 
session  of  congress,  to  meet  on  the  4th  of  September.  Con- 
gress passed  an  act  postponing,  to  the  1st  of  January,  1839, 
the  payment  to  the  Slates  of  the  fourth  instalment  of  the  sur- 
plus revenue,  and  autliorized  an  issue  of  treasury  notes  to  the 
amount  of  $10,000,000,  to  be  receivable  in  payment  of  public 
dues.  A  bill  for  placing  the  public  money  in  the  hands  of 
receivers-general,  called  the  sub-Lreasury  or  independent  treas- 
jiry  hill,  was  recommended  by  the  president,  and  passed  the 
senate,  but  was  lost  in  the  house.  This  bill,  after  repeated 
failures,  was  finally  passed  and  enacted  into  a  law  in  June, 
1840.  —  In  August,  1838,  the  banks  throughout  the  country 
generally  resumed  specie  payment. 

15.  In  1837,  a  rebellion  against  the  British  government  broke 
out  in  Canada.  It  was  sustained  by  some  men  of  talents  and 
influence,  and  disturbed  the  peace  of  that  country  through  the 
following  year  (1838).  A  considerable  number  of  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  belonging  to  the  parts  of  Vermont  and  New 
York  which  border  on  Canada,  unhappily  took  part  with  the 
insurgents.  Their  course  was  condemned  by  the  general  gov- 
ernment; and  the  president  issued  a  proclamation,  exhorting 


316  UNITED  STATES. 

such  citizens  of  the  United  States,  as  had  violated  their  duties, 
to  return  peaceably  to  their  respective  liomcs,  and  warning 
them  that  the  laws  would  be  rigidly  enforced  against  such  as 
should  render  themselves  liable  to  punishment. 

16.  In  1841,  Mr.  Van  Burcn  was  succeeded  by  William 
Henri/  Harrison,  who  had  been  somewhat  distinguished  in  po- 
litical life,  but  more  for  his  military  services.  He  was  inaugu- 
rated on  the  4th  of  March,  and  died  on  the  4th  of  April,  just 
one  month  after  his  inauguration.  He  was  the  first  president 
of  the  United  States  that  died  in  office,  and  his  death  was 
greatly  lamented. 

17.  General  Harrison  was  the  candidate  of  the  Whigs,  and 
Mr.  Van  Buren  of  the  Democrats ;  and  the  electioneering  con- 
test was  carried  on  with  an  excitement  and  enthusiasm  never 
before  witnessed  in  this  country.  Of  the  294  electoral  votes 
given  for  president,  Harrison  received  234  ;  and  John  Tyler 
received  the  same  number  of  votes  for  vice-president.  On  the 
death  of  President  Harrison,  John  Tyler,  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  the  constitution,  became  president.  But  he 
refused  to  carry  out  the  principles  of  the  party  by  which  he 
was  elected  ;  nor  did  he  become  popular  with  any  party. 

18.  On  the  31st  of  May,  co'ngress  inet  in  an  extra  session, 
which  had  been  called  by  President  Harrison,  and,  besides  other 
acts,  they  repealed  the  sub-treasury  bill,  and  passed  two  differ- 
ent bills,  establishing  a  Fiscal  Bank,  or  Fiscal  Coiyoration  of 
the  United  States,  both  of  which  were  vetoed  by  the  president. 
The  establishment  of  such  an  institution  was  a  favorite  measure 
of  the  whigs,  and  the  action  of  the  president,  in  relation  to  it, 
caused  much  excitement ;  and  all  the  members  of  the  cabinet 
resigned,  with  the  exception  of  the  secretary  of  state,  Mr. 
Webster,  who  fortunately  retained  office  till  after  the  settlement 
of  the  difficulty  with  England  in  relation  to  the  northeastern 
boundary. 

19.  In  1842,  a  new  tariff  law  was  enacted,  which  made 
provision  for  the  public  revenue,  and  afforded  protection  to 
American  manufactures  and  other  branches  of  national  indus- 
try, and  which  was  a  favorite  measure  of  the  whig  party. 
This  measure,  as  it  was  mamtained  by  its  friends,  had  a  pow- 
erful influence  in  restoring  a  high  state  of  prosperity  to  the 
country  ;  but  it  caused  great  dissatisfaction  in  some  parts,  es- 
pecially in  the  southern  States. 

20.  The  northeastern  boundary  of  the  United  States,  be- 
tween the  State  of  Maine  and  the  British  provinces  of  Lower 
Canada  and  New  Brunswick,  had  been  for  some  years  a  sub- 
ject of  negotiation  and  controversy  ;  and  at  length  it  threatened 


UNITED   STATES.  317 

to  become  a  subject  of  serious  national  dispute.  Tlio  difficulty, 
however,  was  amicably  adjusted  by  the  treaty  of  Washington, 
concluded  in  September,  18i2,  by  Lord  Ashburton  and  Daniel 
Webster. 

21.  One  of  the  last  acts  of  Mr.  Tyler's  administration  was 
the  annexation  of  the  republic  of  Texas  to  the  United  States 
—  a  measure  which  was  greatly  promoted  by  the  exertions  of 
John  C.  Calhoun,  the  secriitary  of  state,  and  which  excited  a 
spirited  controversy.  Joint  resolutions  for  the  annexation  of 
tliat  rei)ublic  to  the  United  States,  as  one  of  the  States  of  tho 
Union,  passed  the  house  of  representatives,  on  the  25th  of 
.Tanuary,  1845,  by  a  vote  of  120  to  98 ;  and  the  senate,  on  the 
1st  of  March,  by  a  vote  of  27  to  25 ;  and,  on  the  same  day, 
they  were  approved  by  the  president. 

22.  In  1845,  Mr.  Tyler  was  succeeded  by  James  Knox  Polk. 
Mr.  Polk  was  the  democratic  candidate  ;  and,  after  a  very  ex- 
citing electioneering  contest,  he  received  170  electoral  votes 
for  president ;  and  Ilennj  Clay,  the  whig  candidate,  received 
105  votes. 

23.  The  party  by  which  Mr.  Polk  was  supported  took  strong 
ground  in  favor  of  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  of  the  claim 
of  the  United  States  to  the  whole  of  the  Oregon  Territory ; 
and  Mr.  Polk,  in  his  inaugural  address,  sustained  the  views  of 
his  party  on  both  of  these  questions ;  one  of  which  threatened 
to  involve  the  nation  in  hostilities  with  Mexico,  and  the  other 
with  Great  Britain. 

24.  The  settlement  of  the  northwestern  boundary,  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Nortli  American  territories  of  Great 
Britain,  involving  the  claims  of  both  pai'ties  to  the  Oregon  Ter- 
ritory, had  long  been  a  subject  of  negotiation  ;  and  it  now  as- 
sumed a  threatening  aspect.  But  it  was  happily  adjusted  by  a 
tre;ity,  concluded  at  Washington,  in  June,  1846,  fixing  on  the 
49th  degree  of  north  latitude  as  the  boundary-line. 

25.  On  the  recommendation  of  the  president,  congress 
passed,  in  July,  1846,  a  new  tariff'  laio,  having  a  primary  view 
to  the  interests  of  the  public  revenue,  and  withdrawing,  in  a 
great  measure,  the  protection  to  domestic  industry  afforded  by 
the  tariff  of  1842. 

26.  The  loar  with  Mexico  grew  out  of  the  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  United  States.  Texas,  which  was  formerly  a 
province  of  Mexico,  declared  its  independence  in  1836 ;  and, 
from  that  time,  it  had  maintained  a  separate  republican  govern- 
ment ;  but  its  independence  had  not  been  acknowledged  by 
Mexico.  In  Mai-ch,  1845,  immediately  after  the  passage  of 
the  resolutions  of  congress  in  favor  of  the  annexation,  General 

27* 


318  UNITED  STATES. 

Almonte,  the  Mexican  minister  to  the  United  States,  remon- 
strated against  these  resolutions,  and  demanded  his  passports ; 
and  all  diplomatic  intercourse  between  the  two  governments 
was  immediately  broken  off. 

27.  The  boundaries  of  Texas  were  never  definitely  settled. 
The  government  of  Texas  and  of  the  United  States  maintained 
that  the  southwestern  boundary  of  that  country  was  formed  by 
the  Rio  Grande ;  but  the  Mexicans  contended  that  that  bound- 
ary was  formed  by  the  river  Nueces.  The  country  between  these 
two  rivers  was  disputed  territory,  both  parties  claiming  it :  it 
was  on  this  disputed  territory  that  hostilities  were  commenced  ; 
and  each  party  charged  the  other  with  being  the  aggressor. 

28.  In  July,  1845,  the  legislature  of  Texas  ratified  the  reso- 
lutions of  congress,  by  which  that  republic  was  annexed  to  the 
United  States,  and  requested  President  Polk  to  take  immediate 
measures  to  defend  the  new  State  against  an  apprehended  at- 
tack from  Mexico.  An  American  squadron  was  accordingly 
despatched  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  General  Zachary  Tay- 
lor was  ordered  to  proceed  to  the  southern  frontier  of  Texas, 
with  a  sufficient  force  for  its  defence. 

29.  In  March,  1846,  General  Taylor,  having  previously  con- 
centrated an  army  of  about  4,000  men  at  Corpus  Christi, 
received  orders  from  the  United  States  government  to  move 
forward,  into  the  disputed  territory,  to  the  Rio  Grande.  He 
accordingly  took  a  position  on  the  left  bank  of  that  river,  op- 
posite to  Matamoras,  where  he  erected  a  fort ;  and,  at  the 
same  time,  he  established  a  depot  of  supplies  at  Point  Isabel, 
upwards  of  twenty  miles  in  his  rear,  near  the  coast. 

30.  A  Mexican  force  of  about  8,000  men  was  soon  assem- 
bled on  the  Rio  Grande,  at  and  near  Matamoras,  under  the 
command  of  Generals  Ampudia  and  Arista,  who  declared  the 
advance  of  General  Taylor  with  his  army  to  be  a  hostile  move- 
ment. On  the  24th  of  April,  General  Arista  informed  General 
Taylor  that  "  he  considered  hostiUties  commenced,  and  should 
prosecute  them."  On  the  same  day,  a  party  of  63  American 
dragoons,  under  Captain  Thornton,  who  had  been  despatched 
to  reconnoitre,  were  surprised  by  a  large  Mexican  force,  16 
being  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  rest  taken  prisoners. 

31.  A  few  days  afterwards,  the  greater  part  of  the  Mexican 
army  crossed  the  river,  and  General  Taylor  being  informed 
that  they  intended  to  attack  Point  Isabel,  where  his  militaiy 
stores  were  deposited,  marched  to  the  relief  of  that  place, 
which  he  reached  unmolested.  The  garrison  there  having 
been  strengthened  by  a  reinforcement  of  500  sailors  and  ma- 
rines, from  the  American  squadron  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  he 
began,  on  the  7th  of  May,  to  retrace  his  steps  to  the  Rio 
Gmnde. 


UNITED  STATES.  319 

32.  About  noon  the  next  day,  he  encountered  the  Mexican 
urmy,  of  G,000  men,  at  Palo  Alio  ;  and,  after  an  action  of  five 
hours,  he  drove  them  from  the  field,  with  the  loss  of  nearly 
400  in  killed  and  wounded.  The  Americans,  whose  number 
was  about  2,300,  lost  about  50  in  killed  and  wounded,  and 
among  the  former  was  the  lamented  Major  Ringgold. 

XVi.  Oa  the  following  day,  after  advancing  three  miles,  the 
American  army  again  met  the  Mexicans,  strongly  posted  at 
Resaca  de  la  Pahna,  and  completely  routed  them,  killing  and 
wounding  about  600,  taking  a  large  number  of  prisoners, 
among  whom  was  General  La  Vega,  and  capturing  all  the 
cannon  and  military  stores  of  the  enemy.  A  few  days  after 
this  battle,  General  Taylor  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  and  took 
possession  of  Matamoras,  which  had  been  left  by  the  Mexican 
troops. 

34.  Early  in  May,  the  news  of  Captain  Thornton's  dis- 
aster reached  Washington,  accompanied  by  exaggerated  state- 
ments of  the  peril  to  which  General  Taylor's  army  was  exposed, 
and  it  produced  great  excitement.  The  president,  in  a  special 
message,  on  the  11th  of  May,  announced  to  congress,  which 
was  then  in  session,  that  the  Mexicans  "  had  invaded  our  terri- 
tory and  shed  the  blood  of  our  fullow-citizens  on  our  own  soil." 
Congress,  after  an  animated  debate  of  two  days,  declared,  that, 
"  by  the  act  of  the  republic  of  Mexico,  war  existed  between 
that  government  and  the  United  Stales "  ;  and,  at  the  same 
time,  authorized  the  president  to  accept  the  services  of  50,000 
volunteers  for  twelve  months,  and  ap{)ropriated  $10,000,000  to 
carry  on  the  war.  The  whig  members  of  congress  proposed 
to  strike  out  the  preamble  to  the  bill,  in  which  it  is  asserted 
that  the  war  existed  by  the  act  of  Mexico,  but  without  success  ; 
and  the  bill,  with  the  preamble,  passed  the  house  by  a  vote  of 
142  to  14,  and  the  senate  by  a  vote  of  40  to  2. 

35.  It  is  proper  to  remark,  that  there  was  a  strong  feeling  in 
a  great  part  of  the  country  against  the  war,  and  a  large  portion 
of  the  citizens,  especially  in  the  northern  States,  condemned 
it  as  unnecessary,  uujust,  and  made  for  unworthy  purposes. 
Such  views  were  expressed  by  the  legislatures  of  some  of  the 
northern  Stales,  and  repeatedly  by  the  whig  members  of  con- 
gress. And  notwithstiindin^the  above  vote  relating  to  the  war, 
in  the  house  of  representatives,  the  same  body,  in  January, 
1848,  declared,  by  a  vote  of  85  tb  81,  that  it  was  "  a  war  un- 
necessarily and  unconstitutionally  made  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States." 

36.  General  Taylor's  force  was  soon  after  increased  by  a 
large  number  of  volunteers  from  Texas  and  the  adjacent  States. 
The  Mexican  towns  on  the  Rio  (.Trande  were  seized  and  occU' 


820  UNITED  STATES. 

pied,  and  camps  formed  to  muster  and  drill  the  new  levies, 
preparatory  to  an  invasion  of  the  interior  of  Mexico. 

37.  After  three  months'  preparation,  General  Taylor,  with 
an  army  of  between  6,000  and  7,000  men,  proceeded  to  attack 
the  strongly  fortified  city  of  Monterey^  the  capital  of  the  State 
of  New  Leon,  which  was  garrisoned  by  about  10,000  Mexican 
troops,  commanded  by  General  Ampudia. 

38.  The  American  army  reached  Monterey  on  the  19th  of 
September,  1846,  and,  on  the  21st,  assaulted  the  city  with  the 
view  of  taking  it  by  storm  ;  and,  after  a  severe  and  sanguinary 
struggle  of  three  days,  they  became  masters  of  the  principal 
defences,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  city.  On  the  24th,  Gen- 
eral Ampudia  proposed  terms  of  capitulation,  which  were  ac- 
cepted, and  the  Mexican  army  evacuated  Monterey.  At  the 
same  time,  General  Taylor  agreed  to  an  armistice  of  eight 
weeks,  subject  to  the  ratification  of  the  governments  at  Wash- 
ington and  Mexico. 

39.  While  these  events  were  taking  place  near  the  Rio 
Grande,  General  Santa  Anna,  ex-president  of  Mexico,  and  the 
most  distinguished  military  commander  of  that  country,  had 
returned  from  exile,  and  had  overthrown  the  government  of 
President  Paredes,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  party  supposed 
to  be  most  in  favor  of  prosecuting  the  war  with  the  United 
States.  Strong  hopes  were  entertained  by  the  American  gov- 
ernment that  the  influence  of  Santa  Anna,  on  his  restoration  to 
power,  would  be  exerted  in  favor  of  peace  ;  and  the  president 
accordingly  had  given  orders  to  the  naval  commander  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  throw  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of  his  return. 
But  these  expectations  proved  to  be  ill-founded  ;  and,  under  his 
administration,  the  Mexicans  were  roused  to  greater  efforts, 
than  they  had  hitherto  made,  to  repel  their  invaders. 

40.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  American  government 
resolved  to  strike  a  decisive  blow,  by  attacking  Vera  Cruz,  the 
principal  Mexican  port  and  fortress,  with  the  intention  of 
thereby  gaining  access  to  the  heart  of  the  country,  and  to  the 
capital  of  the  republic,  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  "  conquering 
a  peace."  General  WinficM  Scott  was  accordingly  ordered  to 
take  the  chief  command  of  all  the  forces  in  Mexico,  and  to 
conduct  the  expedition  against  Vefa  Cruz. 

41.  The  armistice,' which  General  Taylor  had  concluded  at 
Monterey,  was  not  approved  fey  the  authorities  at  Washington  ; 
and,  in  November,  his  army  resumed  offensive  operations,  and 
speedily  overran  and  subdued  the  States  of  Coahuila  and  Ta- 
maulipas.  About  this  time,  however,  General  Scott  arrived  at 
the  seat  of  war,  and  withdrew  from  General  Taylor  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  his  army,  including  nearly  all  the  regular  troops 
to  augment  the  forces  destined  to  besiege  Vera  Cruz 


UNITED   STATES.  321 

42.  In  February,  1847,  General  Taylor  formed  a  camp  of 
iibout  5,000  men,  mostly  volunteers,  at  Agua  Nuevo,  near  the 
city  of  SaltiUo.  On  the  20th  of  the  month,  he  learnt  that 
Santa  Anna,  with  20,000  troops,  had  arrived  within  30  miles 
of  him,  by  a  series  of  forced  marches  from  San  Luis  Pofosi, 
300  miles  distant,  across  a  barren  country,  almost  destitute  of 
water.  General  Taylor  immediately  broke  up  his  camp,  and 
fell  buck  11  miles  to  Buena  Vista,  where  he  posted  his  army 
in  a  very  strong  position,  protected  by  deep  ravines  and  rugged 
mountainous  ridges. 

\:i.  On  the  22d  of  February,  the  Mexican  army  appeared  in 
front  of  the  American  lines,  and  Santa  Anna  summoned  Gen- 
eral Taylor  to  surrender,  which  the  latter  declined  to  do. 
Some  skirmishing  ensued  ;  but  the  battle  did  not  begin  until 
the  23d,  when  the  Mexicans  attempted,  by  repeated  charges, 
to  force  the  American  lines.  Notwithstanding  some  partial 
successes,  achieved  by  their  immense  superiority  of  force, 
they  were,  at  length,  completely  repulsed  ;  and,  after  a  fierce 
and  sanguinary  contest,  which  lasted  throughout  the  day,  thp 
Americans  remained  masters  of  the  field.  During  the  nighl, 
the  Mexicans  abandoned  their  camp,  and  retreated,  in  a  state 
of  great  disorder,  towards  San  Luis  Potosi,  from  whence  they 
had  advanced.  The  American  loss,  in  this  battle,  was  723  in 
killed  and  wounded,  and  that  of  the  Mexicans  amounted  to 
about  2,000. 

44.  On  the  9th  of  March,  1847,  General  Scott  landed  near 
Vera  Cruz,  with  an  army  of  about  12,000  men.  The  city 
was  immediately  invested,  and  after  a  furious  bombardment  of 
several  days,  during  which  the  destruction  of  life  and  property 
was  very  great,  the  Mexican  commander,  on  the  29th  of  March, 
capitulated  and  surrendered  the  city,  and  also  the  famous 
fortress  of  St.  Juan  (T  Ulloa,  together  with  5,000  prisoners  and 
400  pieces  of  artillery. 

45.  Early  in  April,  the  American  army  began  its  march 
from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  city  of  Mexico.  At  the  mountain  pass 
of  Cerro  Gordo,  about  50  miles  from  Vera  Cruz,  it  encoun- 
tered the  Mexican  army,  commanded  by  President  Santa  Anna, 
consisting  of  12,000  or  15,000  men,  strongly  entrenched  in  an 
almost  impregnable  position. 

46.  On  the  18th  of  April,  the  Americans,  who  numbered 
8,500,  began  the  assault,  and  in  a  few  hours  carried  by  storm 
all  the  batteries  and  entrenchments  of  the  Mexicans,  who  fled 
in  confusion,  leaving  in  the  hands  of  the  victors  about  3,000 
prisoners,  4,000  or  5,000  stand  of  arms,  and  43  pieces  of  ar- 
tillery. Among  the  prisoners  were  five  generals,  one  of  whom. 
La  Vega,  had  before  been  captured  in  the  battle  of  Resaca  da 


823  UNITED   STATES. 

la  Palma.  The  American  loss  in  this  engagement  was  431  in 
killed  and  wounded ;  the  Mexican  loss,  about  three  times  as 
many. 

47.  The  victory  of  Cerro  Gordo  was  followed  by  the  imme- 
diate surrender  of  the  city  of  Jalapa,  and  the  strong  forti-ess 
of  Perote;  and,  on  the  15th  of  May,  the  Americans  entered 
Puebla,  the  most  important  city  of  Mexico,  next  to  the  capital. 
Here,  'he  army,  which  had  been  diminished  by  death,  sickness, 
and  the  departure  of  volunteers,  to  about  5,000  effective  men, 
remained  nearly  three  months,  waiting  for  reinforcements  and 
.supplies. 

48.  On  the  7th  of  August,  1847,  reinforcements  having  ar- 
rived. General  Scott  began  his  march  from  Puebla  to  the  city 
of  Mexico,  at  the  head  of  about  11,000  men.  On  the  18th, 
the  army  reached  the  hamlet  of  San  Augustin,  10  miles  south 
of  the  capital ;  and,  on  the  20th,  two  sanguinary  battles  were 
fought  with  a  Mexican  force  of  more  than  30,000  men,  who 
were  stationed  in  and  around  the  strongly  fortified  posts  that 
defended  the  approaches  to  the  city.  In  the  first  battle,  that  of 
Contreras,  4,500  Americans  assaulted,  and,  in  less  than  twenty 
minutes,  drove  from  their  entrenchments,  7,000  Mexicans, 
killing  700  and  taking  813  prisoners,  besides  many  colors  and 
standards,  and  22  pieces  of  artilleiy.  In  the  second  battle, 
that  of  Churubusco,  the  disparity  of  force  was  even  greater, 
and  the  Mexican  loss  still  more  severe,  —  about  6,000  Amer- 
icans engaging  and  completely  routing  almost  the  whole  Mexi- 
can army.  General  Scott  thus  speaks  of  the  achievements  of 
the  army  under  his  command  on  this  occasion  :  —  "It  has  in  a 
single  day,  in  many  battles,  as  often  defeated  32,000  men ; 
made  about  3,000  prisoners,  including  8  generals  (two  of  them 
ex-presidents)  and  205  other  officers  ;  killed  or  wounded  4,000 
of  all  ranks,  besides  entire  corps  dispersed  and  dissolved  ;  cap- 
tured 37  pieces  of  ordnance,  —  more  than  trebling  our  siege 
train  and  field  batteries, —  with  a  large  number  of  small  arms, 
a  full  supply  of  ammunition  of  every  kind,  &c.  —  Our  loss 
amounts  to  1,053:  killed,  139,  including  16  officers,  wounded, 
876,  including  60  officers." 

49.  These  rapid  and  decisive  victories  caused  such  conster- 
nation among  the  Mexicans,  that  General  Scott  might  at  once 
have  forced  his  way  into  the  city ;  but  he  forebore  to  do  so, 
not  wishing  to  drive  the  people  to  desperation,  and,  to  use  his 
own  words,  "  willing  to  leave  something  to  the  republic  on 
which  to  rest  her  pride  and  recover  temper."  Accordingly, 
he  acceded  to  a  request  made  by  President  Santa  Anna  for  »*» 
armistice,  the  terms  of  which  were  agreed  upon  and  signed  oo 
the  23d  of  August. 


UNITED  STATES.  323 

50.  Mr.  Nicholas  Trist.,  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  had  arrived  in  Mexico  some 
months  before,  and  was  now  in  General  Scott's  camp.  Nego- 
tiations for  peace  were  immediately  commenced  between  him 
and  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Mexican  government. 
But  as  the  latter  proposed  terms  that  were  not  satisfactory,  and 
the  Mexican  military  commanders  were  violating  the  terms  of 
the  armistice  by  erecting  and  strengthening  fortifications,  Gen- 
eral Scott  recommenced  hostilities  on  the  7th  of  September. 

51.  On  the  following  day,  a  division  of  the  American  army, 
3,200  in  number,  commanded  by  General  Worth,  carried  by 
storm  the  strong  position  of  El  Molbio  del  Rey,  which  was 
held  by  above  14,000  Mexicans,  under  the  command  of  Presi- 
dent Santa  Anna.  The  Mexican  loss  in  this  action,  which  was 
perhaps  the  most  fiercely  contested  of  the  whole  war,  amounted 
to  3,000  in  killed,  wounded,  and  captured.  The  Americana 
lost,  in  killed  and  wounded,  nearly  800,  about  one  fourth  of 
the  number  engaged. 

52.  Five  days  afterwards,  the  fortress  of  Chapultepec,  situ- 
ated on  a  steep,  rocky  hill,  150  feet  in  height,  was  stormed,  and 
the  army  which  suppoi*ted  it  was  routed  and  driven  into  the  city  ; 
the  victorious  Americans  followed,  and,  by  nightfall,  one  divi- 
sion of  their  army  was  within  the  gates  of  Mexico,  while 
another  occupied  the  suburbs. 

53.  During  the  night,  the  shattered  remnant  of  the  Mexican 
army,  and  the  members  of  the  federal  government  and  con- 
gress, fled  from  the  city,  of  which  the  Americans  took  full 
possession  the  next  day,  September  14th,  1847. 

54.  The  total  loss  of  General  Scott's  army,  in  these  battles 
before  Mexico,  amounted  to  about  2,700  in  killed  and  wounded. 
The  number  of  American  troo])S,  that  entererl  and  took  pos- 
session of  this  city  of  140,000  inhabitants,  was  less  than  6,000. 

55.  Besides  the  invasions  of  Mexico  by  the  armies  com- 
manded by  Generals  Taylor  and  Scott,  another  was  conducted 
by  General  Kearny,  who,  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  1846,  set 
out  from  Missouri,  at  the  head  of  1,600  men,  mostly  volun- 
teers from  that  State,  for  the  purpose  of  conquerir.g  New 
Mexico. 

56.  After  a  fatiguing  march  of  about  1,000  miles  across  tl.\5 
prairies.  General  Kearny  arrived  at  Santa  Fe,  of  which  he  took 
possession,  without  opposition,  on  the  18th  of  August.  He  im- 
mediately declared  himself  Governor  of  New  Mexico,  and 
issued  a  proclamation,  absolving  the  people  from  their  allegi- 
ance to  the  Mexican  government,  and  constituting  them  citizena 
of  the  United  States. 

57.  In  December,  1846,  Colonel  Doniphan,  a  volunteer  from 


UNITED   STATES. 

Missouri,  departed  from  Santa  Fe,  at  the  head  of  900  nr^n,  to 
invade  the  Mexican  State  of  Chihuahua.  At  Bracito,  on  the 
Rio  Grande,  a  division  of  his  force,  500  in  number,  encoun- 
tered 1,200  Mexicans,  whom  they  put  to  flight,  with  a  loss  of 
about  200  in  killed  and  wounded  ;  while  the  Americans  had 
none  killed,  and  only  seven  wounded. 

58.  Two  months  later,  on  the  28th  of  February,  1847,  at 
tlie  Pass  of  Sacramento,  Colonel  Doniphan's  little  army  met 
and  defeated  4,000  Mexicans,  commanded  by  the  governor  of 
the  State,  and  occupying  a  strong  position,  defended  by  heavy 
artillery.  On  the  following  day,  March  1st,  they  took  posses- 
sion of  the  important  city  of  Chihuahua. 

59.  In  the  summer  of  1846,  Captain  (afterwards  Colonel) 
Fremont,  who,  with  a  party  of  about  60  men,  was  exploring 
California  by  order  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  be- 
came involved  in  hostilities  with  the  Mexican  governor  of  that 
province.  With  the  aid  of  a  few  American  settlers,  Fremont 
defeated  the  Mexican  forces,  which  were  much  superior  in 
number  ;  and,  on  learning  that  war  existed  between  the  United 
States  and  Mexico,  he  raised  the  American  flag,  and  in  con- 
junction with  Commodore  Stockton,  who  commanded  the  United 
States  fleet  in  the  Pacific,  prosecuted  the  conquest  of  the 
country  with  such  success,  that,  by  the  end  of  August,  the 
whole  of  California  was  in  possession  of  the  Americans. 

60.  Soon  after  the  conquest  of  the  city  of  Mexico  by  Gen- 
eral Scott,  negotiations  for  peace  began,  which  resulted  in  a 
treaty  concluded  on  the  2d  of  February,  1848,  at  the  city  of 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  and  ratified,  with  some  modifications,  by 
the  American  senate,  on  the  10th  of  the  following  March. 

61.  By  the  provisions  of  this  treaty,  Mexico  ceded  to  the 
United  States  the  provinces  of  New  Mexico  and  Upper  Cali- 
fornia, and  agreed  to  accept  the  Rio  Granule  as  the  boundary 
between  her  territories  and  Texas.  —  The  territory  acquired 
from  Mexico,  by  this  treaty,  including  Texas,  as  well  as  New 
Mexico  and  California,  amounts,  according  to  the  statement 
of  President  Polk,  in  his  message  to  congress  in  December, 
1848,  to  851,598  square  miles. 

62.  The  United  States,  in  return,  stipulated  to  pay  Mexico 
15,000,000  of  dollars,  and  to  assume  the  debts  due  to  citizens 
of  the  United  States  by  the  Mexican  government,  to  the  amount 
of  3,500,000  dollars. 

63.  Soon  after  the  acquisition  of  California,  important  gold 
mines  were  discovered  on  the  Sacramento,  which  have  been 
found  to  extend  over  a  large  tract  of  country,  and  to  exceed  in 
richness  any  other  gold  mines  known  in  any  part  of  the  world. 


UNITED  STATES.  325 

These  mines  have  caused  a  sudden  emigration  to  California  of 
great  numbers  of  pereons,  not  only  from  the  United  States,  but 
also  from  various  foreign  countries.  The  quantity  of  gold  ob- 
tained from  tlie  mines  during  the  first  year  (1848),  notwith- 
standing the  insufliciency  of  means  and  the  want  of  system 
and  experience  in  oj)eration,  has  been  estimated  to  amount,  in 
value,  to  upwards  of  $4,000,000. 

64.  Such  have  been  the  progress  and  such  the  issue  of  the 
Mexican  war,  —  a  war  presenting  a  scries  of  remarkable  vic- 
tories, under  the  able  management  of  Gen.  Scott  and  Taylor, 
and  other  American  officers,  and  terminating  in  a  great  acces- 
sion of  territory  to  the  United  States.  Still  the  important  ques- 
tion may  be  asked,  Can  the  war  be  justified  on  moral  or 
religious  principle  ?  But  however  this  question  may  be  an- 
swered, it  is  to  be  hoped  that  a  beneficent  Providence  will  bring 
good  out  of  evil,  and  cause,  in  the  final  result,  an  advancement 
of  human  freedom  and  human  happiness,  of  good  government 
and  of  true  religion. 

65.  In  1849,  Mr.  Polk  was  succeeded  by  Zacliary  Taylor, 
most  of  whose  life  had  been  spent  as  an  officer  in  the  army, 
and  who,  in  the  Mexican  war,  had  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  military  commander.  General  Taylor  was  the  whig  can- 
didate, and  he  received  163  electoral  votes  for  president ;  and 
General  Lewis  Cass,  the  democratic  candidate,  received  127 
votes.  —  Millard  Fillmore,  the  whig  candidate,  received  163 
votes  for  vice-president, 

06.  President.  Taylor  died  suddenly  aL  Wasliinglon,  during 
the  session  of  Congress,  on  the  9th  of  July,  1850,  greatly  la- 
mented ;  and  Millard  Fillmore,  in  accordance  witli  the  pro- 
vision of  the  Conslitulion,  became  President  of  the  United 
States. 

67.  In  the  following  September,  soon  after  the  accession  of 
the  new  president,  a  series  of  important  acts,  which  liave  been 
styled  "  compromise  measures,"  were  passed  by  Congress,  and 
approved  by  the  president.  These  acts  were  the  admission  of 
California  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  the  establishment  of  the 
boundary  of  Texas,  the  organization  of  the  territories  of  Neto 
Mexico  and  Utali,  a  law  for  the  recovery  of  fugitive  slaves, 
and  a  law  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  in  the  District 
of  Columbia. 

28 


326 


UNITED  STATES. 


A,  1) 

1600 


Chronological  Table  of  the  History  of  the  U.  States. 


\lth 


1700 


\m 


1800 


\%th 


Virginia  settled  by  the  English. 

New  York        "        "    Dutch. 

Massachusetts  "        "    English  Puritans. 

New  Hampshire        "     English  Puritans. 

New  Jersey      "        "    Dutch. 

Delaware         "        "     Swedes  and  Fins. 

Maine  "         "     English. 

Maryland         "        "     Irish  Catholics. 

Connecticut     "         "     English  Puritans. 

Rhode  Island  "         "     English  under  Roger  Williams. 

Confederation  of  the  Colonies  oi  New  Engkmdiov  mataal  defence. 

North  Carolina  settled  by  the  English. 

New  York  surrendered  by  the  Dutch  to  the  EnglisHt 

The  Colonies  of  Connecticut  and  Neio  Haven  united. 

South  Carolina  settled  by  the  English. 

Pennsylvania  settled  by  English  Quakers  under  William  Penn. 

The  Colonies  of  Plymouth  and  Massachusetts  Bay  united. 


East  and  West  Jersey  united,  and  styled  Neiv  Jersey. 

Georgia  settled  by  the  English  under  General  Oglethorpe. 

Peace  of  Paris :  French  ivar  ends  :   Canada  confirmed  to  Engl. 

The  Revolutionary  War  begins  :  Peace  restored  in  1783. 

Declaration  of  the  INDEPENDENCE  of  the  United  States. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  adopted. 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON,  1st  President  of  the  U.  States. 

Vermont  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 

Kentucky  "  "  " 

Tennessee         "  "  " 

JOHN  ADAMS,  2d  President  of  the  United  States. 

Hostilities  with  France. 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON,  3d  President  of  the  United  States. 
Ohio  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 
Louisiana  purchased  of  France  by  the  United  States. 
General  Embargo  laid  in  all  the  ports  of  the  U.  S. ;  repealed  1809. 
JAMES  MADISON,  4th  President  of  the  United  States. 
Louisiana  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 
Declaration  of  IFar  against  England,  June  18:  ends  Dec.  24, '14. 
Indiana  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 
JAMES  MONROE,  5th  President  of  the  United  States. 
Mississippi;    in  1818,  Illinois;    in  1819,  Alabama;   in  1820, 
Maine ;  in  1821,  Missouri ;  admitted  into  the  Union  as  States. 
Florida  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Spain. 
JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS,  6th  President  of  the  U.  States. 
The  Tariff  Law  enacted,  imposing  protecting  duties  on  imports. 
ANDREW  JACKSON,  7th  President  of  the  United  States 
South  Carolina  passes  an  act  to  nxdlify  tlie  laws  of  the  U.  S. 
Michigan  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 

MARTIN  VAN  BUREN,  8th  President  of  the  U.  States. 

WM.  H.  HARRISON,  9th,  &  John  Tyler,  10th  Pres.  of  U.  S. 

Florida  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 

Texas  annexed,  and  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 

JAMES  K.  POLK,  11th  President  of  the  United  States. 

War  with  Mexico  begins  :  Peace  restored  in  1848. 

Iowa  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 

"Wisconsin       "  "  " 

New  Mexico  and  Califonua  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

ZACHARY  TAYLOR,  12th  President  of  the  United  States. 


UNITED   STATES. 


337 


Events  of  xiie  ]vkvoi.utionary  War. 


1765 


75 


76 


77 


78 


83 


The  Stamp  Act  passed  by  the  British  Parliament. 

Resolutions  against  tlie  Stamj)  Act  passed  by  the  Assemblies  of 
Virginia  and  Massachusetts. 

First  Colonial  Congress,  from  nine  Colonies,  meets  at  New  York. 

The  Stamp  Act  repealed  by  the  British  Parliament. 

Act  of  Parliament  imposing  duties  on  tea,  paper,  glass,  and  paint- 
ers' colore. 

British  troops  amve  at  Boston. 

Aftray  between  the  British  troops  and  tlie  inhabitants  of  Boston  ; 
three  of  the  latter  lulled. 

British  tea  tlirown  into  the  harbor  at  Boston. 

The  Boston  Port  Bill,  shutting  up  the  harbor,  passed. 

First  Continental  Congress  meets  at  Philadelphia. 

The  Hevolutionaky  War  begins  by  a  skirmish  at  Lexington. 

Ticondcroga  and  Crown-Point  taken  by  the  Americans. 

Battle.  I     Victor.  Loss.  I     Defeated.  Loss. 

1.  Bunker  Hill,     I  Howe,  1,054  I  Prescott,         .        .    453 

Congress  meets ;   George  Washington  chosen  commander-in-chief. 

Boston  evacuated  by  the  British,  and  Canada  by  the  Americans. 

Declaration  o/"  Independence  ;  July  4 


Flatbush,  or  \ 
Brooklyn,     ) 
3.  White  Plains, 


400 


Putnam  &  Sullivan,  2,000 
Washington,       3  or  400 


Howe, 

Howe,       3  or  400 
Fort  Washington,  on  the  Hudson,  containing  a  garrison  of  up 

wards  of  2,800  men,  taken  by  the  British 
Gen.  Washington  retreats  through  N.  Jersey  over  the  Delaware 


4.  Trenton, 

5.  Princeton, 

6.  Bennington, 

7.  Brandywine, 

8.  Grcrmantown, 

9.  Stillwater, 


Washington, 

Washington, 

Stark, 

Howe, . 

Howe, 

Gates, 


9 
100 
100 
500 
600 
3.50 


Rahl,  .  .  1,000 
Mawhood,  .  .  400 
Baum  &  Breyman,  600 
Washington,  .  1,000 
Washington,  1,200 

Burgo}iie,         .  600 


Burgoyne  surrenders  to  Gen.  Gates,  at  Saratoga,  with  5,752  men. 
Articles  of  Confederation  and  perpetual  Union  between  the  Thir- 
teen United  States. 
Treaty  of  Alliance  between  the  United  States  and  France. 

10.  Monmouth,  Washington,    230     Clinton,  .         .    400 

11.  Rhode  Island,     Sullivan,  211     Pigott,        .  260 

12.  Briar-Creek,        Prevost,  16     Ash,       .         .         .    300 
Charleston,  S.  C,  surrendered  to  Sir  Henry  Clinton. 

13.  Camden,  |  Comwallis,      325  |  Gates,         .         .         730 
Treachery  of  Arnold  in  attempting  to  deliver  up  West  Point. 

14.  Cow-pens,  Morgan,  72     Tai-leton,  .         .         800 

15.  Guilford,  N.  C.     Comwallis,       523     Greene,  .         .     400 

16.  Eutaw  Springs,     Greene,  550     Stewart,    .  1,000 
New  London  taken  and  burnt  by  Arnold. 

Comwallis  surrenders  to  Washington  at  Yorktown,  with  7,073 
men,  the  last  important  event  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 

Treaty  of  Peace  with  England ;  the  Independence  of  the  United 
States  acknowledged. 


Note. —The  numbers  1  iBunkcr  nUl),  2,  ,3,  ice,  to  16  (Eutatc  Springs),  are  prefixed 
to  the  places  where  the  principal  battles  were  fought,  with  the  names  of  the  victorious 
commanders,  with  their  loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  as  stated  by  the  best  authorities, 
placed  on  tlie  left  of  the  defeated  commanders.  But  the  exact  amount  of  loss,  in  many 
instances,  was  never  ascertained.  The  two  events  most  important  to  the  American 
cauBa  were  the  surrenders  at  Saratoga  and  Yorktown. 


S28 


UNITED  STATEa 


A.  D. 

1600 


[7  th 


1700 


18th 


1800 


mh 


Chkonologt  of  Isipeovements  and  Events 
indicating  the  Pr ogress  of  Society. 


Tobacco  first  cultivated  by  the  English  in  Virginia. 

Harvard  College  founded  at  Cambridge,  Mass. 

First  Printing  Press  in  the  Colonies,  at  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Cambridge  Platform  adopted. 

Eliot's  Indian  Testament  {Bible  in  16G4)  printed  at  Cambridge. 

William  and  ]\[arij  College  founded  at  Williamsburg,  Va. 

Cultivation  of  Puce  introduced  into  South  Carolina. 

Population  of  the  Colonies  about  260,000. 

Yale  College,  the  third  in  the  Colonies,  founded. 


Boston  News  Letter,  the  first  American  Newspaper,  published. 
First  Post-Office  in  America,  at  New  York. 
First  Philadelphia  Newspaper  published. 
Tea  begins  to  be  used  in  New  England. 
First  New  York  Newspaper  published. 
First  Lodge  of  Freemasons  in  America,  at  Boston. 
College  of  New  Jersey  founded. 
White  Population  of  the  Colonies  1,046,000. 
First  Medical  School  in  the  Colonies,  at  Philadelphia. 
American  Philosophical  Society  instituted  at  Philadelphia. 
The  streets  of  Boston  first  lighted  with  lamps. 
Population  of  the  Colonies  about  2,600,000. 
The  number  of  Newspapers  in  the  Colonies  37. 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  instituted  at  Boston. 
Bank  of  North  America,  first  American  bank,  instituted. 
First  American  74  gun  ship  built  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 
Bishop  Seabury,  first  Bishop  in  the  United  States,  consecrated. 
First  American  voyage  to  China  from  New  York. 
Bishop  Can-oil,  first  Catholic  Bishop  in  the  U.  S.,  consecrated. 
First  Census  of  the  U.  S.  taken  :  —  Population  3,929,326. 
First  Quarto  Bibles  printed  in  the  U.  S.,  at  Worcester,  Mass. 
United  States  Mint  established  at  Philadelphia. 
The  Cotton- Gin  invented  by  E.  Wliitney.     Cotton  soon  after- 
wards became  an  important  article  of  produce. 
First  Turnpike  corporation  in  Massachusetts  established. 
Transylvania  University,  first  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  instituted. 


1  About  200  Neiospapers  published  in  the  United  States. 

2  Merino  Sheep  first  imported. 

4  Middlesex  Canal,  the  first  large  canal,  completed. 

7  Steamboats  first  used  on  the  Hudson. 

8  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  first  of  the  kind  in  the  U.  States. 

10  Number  of  Newspapers  published  in  the  United  States  359. 

11  First  Steamboat  on  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio.  —  Navigation  by 

steam  was  soon  afterwards  extensively  introduced. 

15  The  American  Education  Society  instituted. 

16  The  American  Bible  Society  instituted. 

25  The  Erie  Canal  completed. 

26  The  American  Temperance  Society  instituted. 
32  The  Ohio  Canal  completed. 

34  The  Columbia  Railroad;  and  in  1835,  the  Boston  and  Lowell, 
Boston  and  Providence,  Boston  and  Worcester,  and  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  Railroads,  opened.  —  Many  other  important  rail- 
roads were  soon  aftei-wards  completed. 

39! Number  of  Newspapers  and  other  Periodicals  in  U.  S.  1,555. 

46|The  Electric  Telegraph  first  used  for  conveying  intelligence. 


UNITED  STATES. 


329 


28* 


330 


UNITED  STATES. 


Population  of  the  United  States.  — 

Six  Official  Enwnerations.  1 

Slates. 

1790. 

1800. 

1810. 

1820. 

1830. 

1840. 

New  Hampshi 

e, 

141,899 

183,762 

214,360 

244,161 

S?69,:?2S 

284,574 

Massachusetts 

378,717 

423,245 

472,010 

523,287 

6io,4as 

737,699 

Rhode  Island, 

69,110 

69,122 

77,031 

83,059 

97,199 

ias,8,3o 

Connecticut, 

238,141 

251,002 

262,042 

275,202 

297,665 

309,978 

New  York, 

a40,120 

586,756 

959,949 

1,372,812 

1,918,608 

2,428,921 

New  Jersey, 

184,139 

211,9-19 

249,5.55 

277,575 

320,823 

373,306 

Pennsylvania, 

434,373 

602,365 

810,091 

1,049,4.58 

1,348,233 

1,724,033 

Delaware, 

59,098 

64,273 

72,674 

72,749 

76,748 

78,085 

Maryland, 

319,728 

341  ,.548 

380,546 

407,350 

447,040 

470,019 

.  Virginia, 

748,303 

880,200 

974,642 

1,065,379 

1,211,405 

1,239,797 

North  Carolina 

, 

393,751 

478,103 

5.55,500 

63S,829 

737,987 

753,419 

South  Carolina 

^49,073 

345,.591 

415,715 

502,741 

581,185 

594,398 

Georgia, 

82,548 

162,101 

252,433 

.•^10,987 

516,823 

691,392 

Vermont,  admi 

L'd  1791 

85,416 

154,465 

217,713 

235,764 

280,652 

291,948 

Kentucky,      ' 

1792 

73,077 

220,955 

406,511 

564,317 

687.917 

779,.828 

Tennessee,      ' 

1796 

30,791 

105,602 

261,727 

422,813 

681,904 

829,210 

Ohio,              ' 

1802 

45,365 

230,760 

581,434 

937,903 

1,519,467 

Louisiana,      ' 

1812 

76,556 

153,407 

215,739 

352,411 

Indiana,          ' 

1816 

4,875 

24,520 

147,178 

343,031 

685,866 

Mississippi,   ' 

1817 

, 

8,350 

40,352 

75,448 

136,621 

375.651 

Illinois,           ' 

1818 

?* 

12,2.82 

55,211 

157,455 

476,183 

Alabama,        ' 

1819 

20,845 

127,901 

309,527 

590,756 

Maine,            ' 

1820 

96,540 

151,719 

228,705 

298,335 

399,955 

501,793 

Missouri,        ' 

1821 

20,845 

66,586 

140,445 

383,702 

Michigan,      ' 

1836 

4,762 

8,896 

31,639 

212,267 

Arkansas,       ' 

1836 

14,273 

30,388 

97,574 

Florida,          ' 

1845 

34,730 

54,477 

Texas,            ' 

1M5 

Iowa,              ' 

1816 

43,112 

Wisconsin,     ' 

1818 

30,945 

Dist.  of  Colum 

bia. 

14,093 

2i,(m 

33,039 

39,834 

43,712 

Total, 

3,929,827 

5,305,925 

7,239,814 

9,638,131 

12,866,920 

17,063,353 

Slaves 

IN    THI 

United 

States 

States. 

1790. 

1800. 

1810. 

1820. 

1830. 

1840. 

Maine, 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

New  Hampshire, 

158 

8 

0 

0 

0 

1 

Vermont, 

17 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Massachusetts, 

0 

~       0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Rhode  Island, 

952 

381 

103 

43 

17 

5 

Connecticut, 

2,759 

951 

310 

97 

25 

17 

New  York, 

21,324 

20,343 

15,017 

10,088 

75 

4 

New  Jersey, 

11.423 

12,423 

10,851 

7,657 

2,254 

674 

Pennsylvania, 

3,737 

1,706 

795 

211 

403 

64 

Delaware. 
Maryland, 

8,887 

6,153 

4,177 

4,509 

3,292 

2,605 

103,036 

105,635 

111,502 

107,393 

102,294 

89,737 

Virginia, 

203,427 

345,796 

392,518 

425,153 

469,757 

448,987 

North  Carolina, 

100,572 

ia3,296 

168,824 

295,017 

235,601 

245,817 

South  Carolina, 

107,094 

146,151 

196,365 

258,475 

315,401 

327,038 

Georgia, 

29,264 

59,404 

105,218 

149,656 

217,531 

280,944 

Florida, 

15,501 

25,717 

Alabama, 

41,879 

117,&J9 

253,532 

Mississippi, 

3,489 

17,088 

32,814 

65,659 

195,211 

Louisiana, 

34,660 

69,064 

109,588 

168,452 

Missouri, 

3,011 

10,222 

25,081 

58,240 

Arkansas, 

1,617 

4,576 

19,935 

Tennessee, 

3,417 

13,584 

44,535 

80,107 

141,603 

183,059 

Kentucky, 

11,830 

40,343 

80,561 

126,732 

165,213 

182,258 

Ohio, 

0 

3 

Indiana, 

135 

237 

190 

0 

3 

Illinois, 

163 

117 

747 

331 

Michigan, 

24 

32 

0 

Wisconsin, 

11 

Iowa, 

16 

Dist.  of  Columbia, 

3,^44 

5,395 

6,377 

6,119 

4,694 

Total, 

697,897 

893,011 

1,191,364 

1,538,064 

2,009,031 

2,487,355 

UNITED  STATES.  331 

Remarks.  —  The  Population  of  the  several  States,  and  also  the  number 
of  Slaves  in  each  State,  accordin<;  to  six  censuses,  or  official  enumera- 
tions, are  exhibited  on  tiie  preceding  page. 

The  ce}isiis  is  not  as  correct  as  it  should  be.  According  to  the  census 
there  are  a  few  slaves  in  the  States  of  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  Con- 
necticut, JVew  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois, 
though  there  arc  none  in  tliese  States,  slavery  in  them  being  prohibited  by 
hiw. 

The  first  thirteen  States  in  the  table  are  the  States  which  existed  at  the 
time  of  the  forming  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  The  other 
States  are  arranged  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  been  admitted  into 
the  Union. 

Maine  formed  a  part  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts  till  1820,  when  it  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  independent  State. 

By  the  tal)le  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Population  of  the  United  States  has 
increased,  from  1790  to  1840  (50  years),  from  less  than  four  millions  to 
upwards  of  seventeen  millions. 

The  number  of  Slaves  has  increased  from  a  little  less  than  eight  hun- 
dred thousand  to  nearly  twenty-five  hundred  thousand. 

The  population  of  the  United  States,  since  1790,  has  doubled  once  in 
about  24  years. 


Post-Offices. 

The  number  of  Post-Offices  in  the  United  States,  in  1790,  was  7.5 ;  m 
1810,  2,300;  in  1830,  8,450;  in  1849,  16,747. 

Railroads. 

The  first  considerable  railroads  for  conveying  passengers  in  the  United 
States  were  opened  in  1834  and  1835. — The  number  of  miles  of  railroad  in 
use,  in  1849,  was  upwards  of  6,000. 

Literary  Seminaries. 

Colleges.  —  The  first  college  in  the  Colonies  was  founded  at  Cambridge, 
in  1638.  The  number  of  colleges  existing,  in  1700,  was  3 ;  the  number 
of  colleges  and  universities  in  the  United  States,  in  1800,  26;  in  1849, 
120. 

Medical  Schools.  —  The  number  of  medical  schools  in  the  United  States, 
in  1800,  was  3  ;  in  1849,  35. 

Theological  and  Law  Schools.  —  Almost  all  the  theological  schools  in  the 
United  States  have  been  established  within  the  last  forty  years,  and  tha 
taw  schools  are  of  still  later  date. 

The  number  of  theological  schools  in  1849  was  42  ;  law  scltools,  12. 


CHAUT   OF    HISTOHY. 


DESCRIPTION  AND   ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  This  Chart  affords  means  of  facilitating  the  study  of 
History,  similar  to  what  are  afforded  by  maps  in  the  study  of 
Geography.  It  supposes  time  to  be  flowing,  in  a  stream,  from 
the  left  hand  to  the  right ;  and  represents,  at  one  view,  the 
jirincipal  States  and  Empires  which  have  existed  in  the  world, 
together  with  their  origin,  revolutions,  decline,  and  fall. 

2.  Those  who  may  make  use  of  this  Chart  are  supposed  to 
be  conversant  with  the  common  principles  of  Geography,  and 
to  understand  the  relative  situation  and  importance  of  the  dif- 
ferent countries  which  are  represented.  It  will  be  readily 
seen,  that  the  spaces,  which  represent  the  several  countries  on 
the  Chart,  do  not  give  any  exact  idea  of  the  extent  of  those 
countries,  but  of  the  revolutions  which  they  have  undergone, 
and,  in  some  degree,  of  their  comparative  importance  in  his- 
tory. Those  parts  of  the  world  which  are  almost  unknown  in 
history  (as,  for  example,  all  Africa  except  Egypt  and  the  Bar- 
hary  States)  are  not  represented  at  all  on  the  Chart. 

3.  In  the  arrangement  of  the  countries,  the  geographical 
order  is  generally  followed.  It  unavoidably  happens,  that, 
owing  to  conquests,  and  other  acquisitions,  the  several  parts  of 
an  empire  or  state  cannot  always  be  placed  in  a  contiguous 
position.  To  remedy  this  inconvenience,  recourse  has  been 
liad  to  coloring  the  different  parts  of  the  same  empire  with  the 
same  color,  by  means  of  which  the  eye  can  embrace,  at  one 
view,  the  various  territories  of  which  it  was,  at  any  given  pe- 
riod, composed.  The  colors  fit  for  this  purpose  are  so  few,  that 
a  repetition  of  some  of  them  has  been  necessary  ;  but  they  arc 
applied  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  be  likely  to  mislead  the 
student. 

4.  The  scale  of  the  main  body  of  the  Chart  comprises  a  pe- 
riod of  2,700  years  ;  namely,  from  the  year  B.  C.  800,  to  the  end 
of  the  19th  century.  This  interval  is  divided  into  27  equal  parts, 
hy  perpendicular  U7ies,  extending  from  the  top  to  the  bottom, 
each  space  between  the  lines  denoting  the  period  of  100  years. 

5.  To  the  left  hand  of  that  portion  of  the  Chart  appropriated 
to  America,  are  represented  the  principal  states  that  flourished 
in  remote  antiquity,  from  the  time  of  the  Deluge  to  the  yeai 
800  before  the  Christian  Rra. 


334  CHART  OF   HISTORY. 

6.  The  several  countries  of  which  the  history  is  de/ineated 
are  represented  by  spaces  included  between  horizontal  lines. 
The  sla7it  lines  denote  the  gradual  conquest  of  a  country ;  as, 
for  example,  the  conquest  of  the  Britons  by  the  Romans  was 
commenced  A.  D.  43,  but  not  completed  till  84. 

7.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  date  of  any  event  or  revolution 
in  the  history  represented  on  the  Chart,  add  the  figures  at  the 
line  denoting  the  event  to  the  next  century,  if  before  Christ,  on 
the  right  hand,  and  if  after  Christ,  on  the  left  hand,  and  the 
sum  will  give  the  date  before  or  after  Christ,  as  the  case  may  be. 

8.  Thus  it  appears,  that  Egypt  dates  from  2188  B.  C. ;  the 
Calling  of  Abraham.,  1921 ;  the  foundation  of  Rome.,  753  B.  C. ; 
that  Macedonia  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  Empire  168  B.  C. ; 
that  the  Heruli  conquered  Italt/,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Western 
Ro7?ian  Empire,  in  the  year  476  after  Christ ;  and  that  the 
Turks  put  an  end  to  the  Eastern  Empire  in  1453. 

9.  By  carrying  the  eye  horizontally  upon  the  Chart,  from  the 
left  hand  to  the  right,  one  may  see  the  succession  of  states  and 
empix-es ;  their  rise,  progress,  and  fall ;  of  what  states  they 
were  composed,  and  what  states  rose  from  their  ruins. 

10.  By  carrying  the  eye  vertically  upon  the  Chart,  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom,  one  may  see  what  states  and  empires  were 
flourishing  at  any  given  era.  At  the  period  of  500  years  B.  C, 
it  will  be  seen  iJiat  the  Persian  Empire  was  much  the  most 
considerable  then  existing  ;  that  it  had  swallowed  up  the  Baby- 
lonian empire,  and  various  other  countries  in  Asia,  and  also 
Egypt ;  that  the  Grecian  States  existed  separate  and  independ- 
ent ;  that  the  republic  of  Ro7ne  was  of  very  small  exteM ;  and 
that  the  nations  of  the  middle  and  north  of  Europe  were  un- 
conquered  and  independent. 

11.  At  the  period  of  A.  D.  100,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Ro- 
man  Empire  embraced  almost  all  the  then  known  world ;  that 
the  Britons  had  been  recently  subdued,  but  that  the  Irish, 
Scots,  and  the  northern  nations  of  Europe,  and  also  the  Par- 
thians,  Arabs,  Hindoos,  and  Chinese  (nations  then  little  known), 
were  not  conquered. 

12.  At  the  period  of  A.  D.  800,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  three 
principal  empires  were  those  of  the  Saracens  and  the  Franks, 
and  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Empire ;  that  the  Western  Empire 
of  the  Romans  had  been,  for  upwards  of  three  centuries,  ex 
tinct ;  and  that  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  had  been  recently 
terminated ;  that  England  was  under  the  government  of  the 
Saxon  Heptarchy ;  that  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  were  in- 
dependent, and  the  northern  kingdoms  not  yet  formed ;  that 
the  temporal  dominion  of  the  Pope  had  commenced ;  that  the 
Saracens  were  in  possession  of  the  greater  part  of  Spain,  the 


CHART   OF   HISTORY.  335 

whole  of  Arabia  and  Persia^  a  great  part  of  the  EasLem  or 
Greek  Empire^  all  Egi/pf,  and  Barhary. 

13.  At  the  period  of  A.  D.  1300,  it  appears  that  the  three 
kingdoms  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark  were  separate  and 
independent ;  that  a  large  part  of  the  covmtry,  which  now  forms 
the  Russian  Emjnre,  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Moguls ;  that 
Poland  was  an  independent  kingdom,  hut  that  Lit/mania  was 
separate ;  that  England  was  in  possession  of  Wales  and  Ire- 
land, but  not  of  Scotland  ;  that  Bohemia  and  Hungary  were 
independent ;  that  a  considerable  portion  of  France  belonged 
to  England;  that  Lorraine,  Alsace,  and  Burgundy  were  in- 
dependent of  France ;  that  Italy  and  Spain  comprised  various 
states,  the  latter  being  partly  in  possession  of  the  Moors ;  that 
Portugal  had  become  an  independent  kingdom  ;  that  the  East- 
ern Emjnre  was  still  in  existence ;  that  the  Moguls  were  in 
possession  of  Persia,  a  part  of  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Empire 
(modern  Turkey),  and  China,  as  well  as  a  part  of  Russia  ;  that 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  had  fallen  into  the  possession  of  the 
Mamelukes ;  and  that  the  Mamelukes  also  possessed  Egypt. 

14.  At  the  period  of  1800,  it  appears  that  Denmark  was  in 
possession  of  Norway,  which  was  soon  after  annexed  to  Swe- 
den ;  that  the  kingdom  of  Poland  had  been  dismembered  be- 
tween Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  all  of  which  had  now 
become  important  sovereignties  ;  that  Holland,  the  Netherlands, 
and  a  great  part  of  Italy,  had  been  recently  annexed  to  France, 
but  were  soon  after  again  separated  from  it ;  that  Naples  had 
become  an  independent  kingdom  ;  that  the  Turks  were  in  pos- 
session of  a  great  part  of  the  countries  most  celebrated  i'"  an- 
cient history  ;  that  the  Wahahees  had  got  possession  of  a  great 
part  of  Arabia,  and  the  English  of  Hindostan ;  that  the  E?ig- 
lish  possessed  Canada ;  that  the  United  States  had  become  in- 
dependent of  England  ;  that  the  Spanish  Provinces  in  America 
belonged  still  to  Spain,  a^id  Brazil  to  Portugal,  but  that  soon 
afterwards  they  all  became  independent. 

15.  The  figures  on  the  left  hand  of  the  American  States  de- 
note the  time  of  the  conquest  or  settlement  of  each  ;  those  on 
the  right  hand,  the  time  when  each  became  independent.  Thus 
it  appears,  that  Virginia  was  settled  by  the  English  in  1607, 
and  New  England  in  1620 ;  that  the  United  States  became  in- 
dependent in  1776 ;  that  Mexico  was  conquered  by  the  Span- 
iards in  1521,  and  became  independent  in  1821. 

16.  The  four  great  empires  of  antiquity,  as  may  be  seen  by 
the  Chart,  were  the  Assyrian  or  Babylonian,  the  Persian,  the 
Macedonian,  and  the  Roman. 

17.  The  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  Empire  was  the  most  an- 


336  CHART  or  history. 

clent,  and  was  succeeded,  in  536,  by  the  Persian  Empire. 
which  was  swallowed  up,  330  B.  C,  by  the  Macedonian  Em- 
pire. This  latter  empire,  which,  in  its  extensive  form,  was  of 
short  duration,  was  dissolved  301  B.  C. 

18.  The  Roman  Empire  was  much  the  most  powerful  em- 
pire of  antiquity,  and  from  about  half  a  century  before  Christ, 
to  the  latter  part  of  the  5th  century  after  Christ,  when  the 
Western  Emjnre  was  conquered  by  the  Heruli,  embraced  the 
greater  part  of  the  then  known  world. 

19.  The  Heruli  were  supplanted  by  the  Osb-ogoths,  that  is, 
Eastern  Goths ;  the  latter  by  the  Greeks ;  and  these  by  the 
Lo7nbards,  who  retained  possession  of  Italy  till  7^4,  when  they 
were  conquered  by  the  Franks,  whose  empire,  during  several 
centuries,  was  the  most  formidable  in  Europe.  In  843,  it  was 
divided  into  three  monarchies,  France,  Germany,  and  Italy. 

20.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  of  the  Romans, 
the  Franks,  Goths,  Vandals,  Huns,  Lomhards,  and  other  bar- 
barous nations,  obtained  possession  of  the  principal  part  of 
Europe. 

21.  The  empire  of  the  Saracens  commenced  before  the 
middle  of  the  7th  century,  and  continued  through  that  and  the 
8th  and  the  9th  centuries,  flourishing  and  powerful ;  but  was  at 
length  broken  into  various  parts,  and,  in  1258,  the  Caliphate  of 
Bagdad  terminated. 

22.  The  empire  of  the  Moguls  was  widely  extended,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  13th  century,  under  the  mighty  conqueror 
Genghis- KJian ;  and,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  14th  century, 
Timur  Bek,  or  Tamerlane,  a  Tartar,  ran  a  similar  career  of 
conquest. 

23.  By  the  Chart,  it  appears  that,  before  the  Christian  era, 
England  was  inhabited  by  the  Britons,  who  were  conquered 
by  the  Romans  in  the  first  century  after  Christ,  and  continued 
subject  till  410  ;  that  the  Saxon  Heptarchy  was  commenced  in 
455,  completed  in  585,  and  continued  till  827,  when  England 
became  one  kingdom,  under  Saxon  monarchs ;  that  the  Danes 
were  possessed  of  the  kingdom  from  1013  to  1041  ;  that  the 
Saxons  then  regained  possession,  and  held  it  till  1066,  when 
they  were  conquered  by  the  Normans,  under  William  the  Con- 
queror ;  that  Ireland  was  annexed  to  England  in  1 172,  Wales 
in  1283,  and  Scotland  in  1603 ;  and  that  England  held  posses- 
sions in  France  from  1066  to  1588. 

[  The  changes  of  other  states  and  kingdoms,  delineated  on  the  Charts 
will  be  easily  understood.'] 


CHART  OF  HISTORY.  337 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE   CHART  OF  HISTORY* 

1.  Wliat  are  some  of  the  states  antl  cnijMres  that  flourislied  from  the 
Deluge  to  800  B.  C.  1     2.  How  long  before  Clirist  was  the  Ddmje  ? 

3.  Wlicn  was  Bahel  built? 

4.  From  wliat  period  docs  Babylon  date?  5.  Egypt?  6.  SiQyon,  in 
Greece  'i  7.  What  other  cities  in  Greece  were  founded  before  1400  B.  C. '. 
8.  Wliat  is  the  date  of  the  Argonautic  Erpedition  ? 

9.  What  is  the  period  of  Lycurgus?  10.  When  did  the  kingdom  of 
Troy  end  1     11.  What  is  the  date  of  the  Calling  of  Abraham  ? 

12.  When  were  the  Israelites  in  Egypt?  13.  When  did  they  enter 
Canaan?     14.  When  were  they  first  governed  by  a  kingl 

15.  Wlien  was  the  khigdom  divided  into  the  Ten  Tribes  of  Israel  an<l 
Jmlah  ? 

16.  When  was  Israel  incorporated  with  the  Assyrian  Empire? 

17.  When  was  Judah  added  to  the  Babylonian  Empire? 

18.  Wlien  was  Phanicia  annexed  to  the  Babylonian  Empire  ? 

19.  ^Wwn  Ci\A  ([id  Babylonian  Empire  d-niM  20.  What  empire  succeeded 
it?     21.  When  did  the  Persi'mi  £m/«Ve  begin  and  end ? 

22.  By  what  empire  was  it  succeeded  ?  23.  When  was  Egypt  conquered 
hj  iha  Persians?     24.  Wlien  by  the  il/rtCff/o)»'a7/s? 

"  25.  When  were  Athens,  Sparta,  Thebes,  &c.,  annexed  to  the  Macedonian 
Empire  ?    20.  AVlien  was  the  Macedonian  Emjiire  dissolved  ? 

27.  Wlicn  -was  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia  annexed  to  the  Boman  Em- 
pire?    28.  Yi^hcmMA  the  Ptolanics  govern.  Egypt? 

29.  When  did  the  Scleucidie  govern  Syria?  30.  Wheu  did  the  Ptolemies 
govern  ./i/f/m ?     31.  'Wh^xi  i\\c  Maccabees? 

32.  What  is  the  date  of  the  foundation  of  Rome? 

33.  WHiat  is  the  date  of  the  commencement  of  the  Republic? 

34.  What  were  some  of  the  nations  first  conquered  by  the  Romans? 

35.  When  were  the  Cisalpine  Gauls  conqtiered?  3G.  Macedonia?  37 
Greece  ov  the  Achaan  League?  38.  The  Carthatjinians ?  39.  The  Gauls? 
40.  The  Ilelvctii?    41.  Syria?    42.  Judea?    4^.' Egypt?    44.  The  Britons? 

45.  During  what  centuries  was  the  Roman  Empire  most  extensive  ? 

46.  'N^lien  did  the  Roman  dominion  over  the  Britons  end  ? 

47.  When  did  the  Suevi  obtain  possession  of  Spain  ? 

48.  When  did  the  Ileruli  conquer  Italy? 

49.  When  did  the  em])ire  of  the  Erniks  begin  ? 

50.  During  what  centuries  was  it  most  extensive  ? 

51.  When  did  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  in  Italy  begin  and  end  ? 

52.  In  what  century  did  the  Saracen  Empire  commence  ? 

53.  In  what  three  centuries  was  it  most  nourishing? 

54.  Wliat  arc  the  modern  names  of  the  countries  which  it  emljraccd  1 

55.  "When  did  the  Caliphate  of  Bagdad  terminate  ? 
50.  When  did  the  Greek  Empire  of  Nice  terminate  ? 

57.  In  what  century  was  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Empire  governed  by 
French  Emperors  ?    58.  When  did  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Empire  end  ? 
59.  By  whom  was  it  conquered  ? 

Modern   Part. 

1.  In  what  centuries  was  the  empire  of  the  Moguls  most  flourishing  ? 

2.  When  were  the  Tartars  in  possession  of  Persia,  &c.  ? 

*  Ry  tho  Chart,  it  appears  that  Babylon  was  founded  2227  B.  C.  •  Si^yon,  2089  B.  C  ; 
Argos,  1856  B.  C,  &c. 

29 


338  CHART  OF  HISTORY. 

3.  Who  anciently  inhabited  Sweden,  Nonvay,  Denmark,  and  Russia  ? 

4.  Wlien  were  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark  all  united  together  ? 

5.  With  what  countiy  was  Norway  connected  from  1448  to  1814  ? 

6.  In  what  centuries  did  the  Moguls  or  Tartars  possess  a  part  of  Russia ! 

7.  When  was  Poland  divided  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia  ? 

8.  Who  were  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  England  "? 

9.  In  what  centuries  were  the  Romans  in  possession  of  Britain  ? 

10.  In  what  centuries  did  the  Saxon  Heptarchy  exist  1 

11.  When  did  the  Saxon  Heptarchy  end,  and  the  kingdom  under  the 
iS«.ro?i  monarchs  begin  1  12.  Wlien  did  the  Danes  obtain  possession  of 
England  T     13.  When  the  AWmans? 

14.  Wlien  was  Ireland  added  to  England  ■?    15.  Wales?    16.  Scotland? 

17.  In  what  centuries  did  England  hold  possessions  in  France  1 

18.  When  was  Bohemia  annexed  to  the  House  of  Austria  1  19.  When 
Hungary  ? 

20.  When  was  the  empire  of  the  Franks  divided  into  tlie  three  sove 
reignties  of  Germany,  France,  and  Italy  ? 

21.  Wlien  did  the  empire  of  GeiTnany  end  ? 

22.  When  did  the  republic  of  Holland  begin  and  end  ? 

23.  What  nation  held  possessions  in  France  from  10C6  to  1558? 

24.  What  countries  were  annexed  to  France  a  little  before  1800  ? 

25.  When  did  the  republic  of  Switzerland  commence  ? 

26.  In  what  centuries  did  Naples  belong  to  Spain  ? 

27.  When  did  Naples  become  independent  ? 

28.  When  did  the  dominion  of  tlie  Moors  in  Spain  cease  ? 

29.  How  many  centuries  has  Spain  been  united  in  one  kingdom  ? 

30.  Wlien  did  the  kingdom  of  Portugal  commence  ? 

31.  During  a  part  of  what  centuries  was  it  xmited  with  Spain  ? 

32.  When  did  the  empire  of  the  Turks  commence  ? 

33.  How  many  centuries  liave  their  dominions  been  as  extensive  as  at 
present  ? 

34.  Wlien  did  the  Sophis  or  Shahs  get  the  possession  of  all  Persia  ? 

35.  Wliat  different  people  have  been  in  possession  of  Persia  since  the 
downfall  of  the  ancient  Persian  Empu-e  ? 

36.  When  did  the  dominion  of  the  Wahabees  in  Arabia  commence  ? 

37.  Wlien  did  the  English  dominion  in  India  begin  ? 

38.  Wlien  did  the  Mantchew  Tartars  gain  possession  of  China? 

39.  Wliat  different  nations  have  possessed  Egypt  since  800  B.  C.  ? 

40.  Wlien  did  the  Turks  get  possession  of  Egypt  ? 

41.  Wliat  nation  first  settled  Canada? 

42.  Wlien  did  the  English  gain  possession  of  Canada? 

43.  Wlien  and  by  whom  was  Virginia  settled  ?  44.  New  York  ?  45. 
New  England  ?     46.  Pennsylvania  ? 

47.  Wlien  did  the  United  States  become  inde]>endent  ? 

48.  Which  country  on  the  continent  of  America  was  first  settled  by 
Europeans  ?    49.  Wlien  was  Mexico  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  ? 

50.  What  otlier  countiies  were  soon  after  colonized  by  the  Spaniards  ? 

51.  By  whom  was  Brazil  colonized  ? 

52.  Which  of  the  countries  in  South  America  first  became  independent  1 

53.  What  others  soon  followed  ? 

54.  How  long  did  Spain  possess  Mexico  ? 


CHE-ONOLOGY. 


Chronology  is  a  science  which  treats  of  the  natural  and 
anificial  divisions  of  time  ;  and  it  refers  to  certain  points  or 
eras  the  various  events  recorded  in  history. 

Various  eras  have  been  adopted  in  different  ages,  and  by 
different  nations,  in  the  computation  of  time,  and  in  adjusting 
the  dates  of  events  recorded  in  history.  Some  of  the  most 
important  only  of  these  eras  can  be  here  mentioned. 

1.  The  Olympiads.  The  Greeks  computed  their  time  by 
the  era  of  the  Olympiads,  which  date  from  the  year  776  B.  C, 
being  the  year  in  which  Coroebus  was  successful  at  the  Olym- 
pic games.  This  era  differed  from  all  others,  in  being  reck- 
oned by  periods  of  four  years  instead  of  single  years.  Each 
period  of  four  years  was  called  an  Olympiad,  and,  in  marking 
a  date,  the  year  and  the  Olympiad  were  both  mentioned. 

2.  The  Foundation  of  Rome.  The  Romans  reckoned 
their  time  from  the  date  assigned  for  the  founding  of  Rome, 
corresponding  to  the  year  753  B.  C.  This  era  is  designated 
by  the  letters  A.  U.  C,  or  ab  urbe  conditd,  "  from  the  building 
of  the  city." 

3.  The  Christian  Era.  The  Christian  era,  which  is  used 
by  Christian  nations,  is  reckoned  from  the  birth  of  Christ, 
which,  according  to  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament, 
took  place  A.  M.  (in  the  year  of  the  world)  4004 ;  according 
to  the  Samaritan  text,  A.  M.  4700  ;  and,  according  to  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  A.  M.  5872.  The  computation  according  to  the  He- 
brew text  is  followed  in  this  work  ;  and  it  is  generally  adopted 
in  English  literature.  The  birth  of  Christ  is  supposed  to  have 
taken  place  about  four  years  earlier  than  the  period  assigned 
to  it  in  the  vulgar  era. 

The  computation  by  the  Christian  era  first  began  to  be  used 
in  the  6th  century.  The  Roman  or  Julian  year  was  followed, 
consisting  of  365  days  and  6  hours,  which  exceeded  the  true 
time  of  the  solar  year  by  a  little  more  than  1 1  minutes.     This 


340  CHRONOLOGY. 

erroneous  computation  had,  in  the  year  1582,  occasioned  a  de- 
viation of  10  days  from  the  true  time  ;  and  in  that  year  (1582) 
Pope  Gregory  introduced  a  reform  into  the  calendar,  by  taking 
10  days  from  the  month  of  October.  The  calendar  thus  re- 
formed (called  Ncio  Style)  was  immediately  introduced  into  all 
Catholic  countries.  The  reckoning  according  to  the  Julian 
year  (called  Old  Style)  continued  to  be  used  in  England  till 
the  year  1752,  when  11  days  were  omitted  in  September,  the 
day  after  the  2d  being  accounted  the  14th.  —  The  Greeks  and 
Russians  still  use  the  Old  Style. 

4.  The  Era  of  the  Hegira,  The  era  of  the  Hegira,  which 
dates  from  the  flight  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  is 
used  by  Mahometan  nations,  and  corresponds  to  the  16th  of 
July,  A.  D.  622. 

5.  The  American  Era.  The  era  most  used  in  this  countiy, 
next  to  the  Christian  era,  is  that  of  the  Declaration  of  the  In- 
dependence of  the  United  States,  which  took  place  on  the  4th 
of  July,  1776. 

Comparison  of  Different  Eras. 

Year. 

r  3228  of  the  Creation  of  the  World. 
The  Era  of  the  Olympiads  J       23   before   the   Foundation   of 

corresponds  to |    776   before   Christ.  [Rome. 

(^1398   before    the   Hegira. 
r  3251  of  the  Creation  of  the  World. 
The  Foundation  of  Rome  J        4  of  the  6th  Olympiad. 

corresponds  to ]    753  before  Christ. 

(^  1375  before  the  Hegira. 
r4004  of  the  Creation  of  the  World. 
The  Christian  Era  corre- J         1  of  the  195lh  Olympiad. 

sponds  to I     753  of  the  Foundation  of  Rome. 

(_   622  before  the  Hegira. 

("4626  of  the  Creation  of  the  World. 
The   Hegira    corresponds!        3  of  the  318th  Olympiad. 

to I  1375  of  the  Foundation  of  Rome 

(^   622  of  the  Christian  Era. 


CHRONOLOGY.  341 


Chronological  Table. 

In  the  following  table  the  most  important  epochs  are  given, 
together  with  a  system  of  Artificial  Memory,  to  facilitate  the 
recollecting  of  dates.  This  system  is  derived  chiefly  from 
Dr.  Grey's  Memoria  Technica. 

In  order  to  facilitate  remembering  dates,  a  word  is  formed 
of  the  name  recorded,  or  of  the  first  syllables  of  it,  together 
with  one  or  more  syllables  added  to  it,  and  made  up  of  numeral 
letters.  For  this  purpose,  a  vowel  and  a  consonant  are  as- 
signed to  each  digit,  and  a  or  b  denote  1 ;  e  or  d  2 ;  i  or  t  3] 
o  orf4 ;  and  so  on,  in  the  following  series  :  — 


a 

e 

I 

0 

u 

au 

01 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

G 

7 

b 

d 

t 

/ 

V 

8 

/' 

These  letters  may  be  easily  remembered  by  considering 
that  the  first  five  vowels  represent  1,  2,  3,  4,  5;  that  the 
diphthong  aw,  which  is  composed  of  a  1  and  u  5,  denotes  6 ; 
that  oi,  for  the  same  reason,  denotes  7,  oo  8,  and  ou  9.  The 
diphthong  ai  is  put  for  the  cipher  0,  but  without  any  similar 
reason. 

The  first  consonant,  i,  denotes  1  ;  d,  the  first  letter  of  duo^ 
the  Latin  for  txvo,  denotes  2 ;  /,  the  initial  of  the  word  three, 
is  put  for  3 ;  f,  for  the  same  reason,  for  4 ;  f  (V  being  the 
Roman  numeral  for^ye)  denotes  5;  s,  the  initial  of  six,  is  put 
for  6  ;  p,  from  se^tem,  the  Latin  for  seven,  denotes  7  ;  k,  from 
the  Greek  oA:to,  eight,  is  put  for  8 ;  n,  the  initial  of  the  word 
nine,  denotes  9  ;  and  z,  the  final  letter,  is  put  for  0. 

Having  perfectly  learned  the  foregoing  series,  the  student 
may  proceed  to  exercise  himself  in  the  formation  and  resolu- 
tion of  dates,  in  the  following  manner :  — 

10 


189 

342 

390 

659 

1492 

1776 

1830 

boon 

tod 

tonz 

sun 

afne 

apois 

bodz 

The  system  may  be  extended  at  pleasure ;  and,  by  the  for- 
mation of  words  in  the  manner  described,  it  will  be  easy  to  fix 
in  the  mind  the  time  of  the  death  of  illustrious  men,  the  com- 
mencement of  the  reigns  of  kings,  and  other  events,  of  which 
it  is  desirable  to  remember  the  date.  It  will  be  easy  to  re- 
member whether  the  event  took  place  lefore  or  after  Christ.  — 
Besides  the  series  of  letters  already  explained,  g  may  denote  a 
hundred  and  th  a  thousand. 

29  * 


342  CHRONOLOGY. 


Table. 

4004  Creation  of  the  world Cre-faizo 

2313  Deluge DeUtok 

S21~  Babel  built ;  inaukinJ  dispersed Babel-edop 

2188  Tlic  kinedom  of  JSfi-»/;jZ  commences Egypt-ebook 

IS2I  CMms  of  A  brahrnn Abrah-awc6 

1;).:>6  Athene  founded  by  Cecropa Aihavtis 

1103  CaOmns  bring.s  letters  into  Greece  and  builds  Thebes      ....  Cadmus-ioKi 

1  JOl  Israelites  l)roui,'ht  out  of  Egypt  by  Mosea Israel-^ona 

1203  Argunujitic  expedition Argonaut-6cs< 

1184  rro^  taken  and  burnt  by  the  Greeka Ttoy-bako 

1075  Saul  king  of  Israel Sml-azpu 

1012  The  Temple  of  Solomon  founded Templ-azad 

834  Lycargus  reforms  the  laws  of  Lacedajmon Lycurg-ooAo 

77G  The  first  Olympiad  begins Olyni-;>ois 

753  Rome  founded  t)y  Romulus V-om-put 

536  Ci/7-ws  founds  the  Persian  empire ^  .    .  Cyru-w's 

509  Tarquin  expelled  from  Rome Tarquin-»aj« 

490  Battle  of  Marathon ■ Marath-oraz 

400  Socrates  put  to  death Socrat-ozai 

321  Alexander  the  Great  dies  at  Babylon Alexand-Jtio 

312  The  era  of  the  Scleitcidm Seleucid-t'fte 

146  Greece  reduced  to  a  Roman  province Greece-ios 

31  Battle  of  .4  cinwn;  end  of  Roman  common  wealth Actium-<a 

Birth  of  CiinisT ;  4  years  before  the  vulgar  era. 

70  Jerusalc-m  taken  and  destroyed .    Jerusal-ozz 

98  Trajan  emperor  of  Rome       Trajan-Hoo 

306  Constantiiie  emperor  of  Rome Constan-tofs 

476  End  of  the  Western  Roman  empire      .    .    .     .  ' Rom-ybts 

622  Era  of  the  Ilcgira,  or  Flight  of  Mahomet Hegira-sed 

800  Ouirlenuigne  emperor  of  the  West Charlemag-oozoi 

827  The  kingdom  of  England  begins  under  Egbert England-Aep 

106G  William  the  Conqueror  king  of  England VfiM-baisau 

1096  First  Crtisade  to  the  Holy  I,and Crusad-ozoMS 

1227  Genghis-khan's  conqussta  m  A^in.    ....         Genghis- fiedc/i 

1258  End  of  the  Ca/i/;/ia;e  or  Saracen  empire Caliphat-orfwi- 

1340  Gunpow(ler  invented  at  Cologne,  by  Schwartz Gunpowder-aZa» 

1370  Wic/cliffe  propagates  his  doctrines  in  England WicklitT-o/oja 

1393  Timicr  Dek  or  Tamerlane's  conquests Timur-iinA 

1440  The  art  of  Printing  invented Pnnl-a/oz 

1453  Eastern  Empire  ends ;  Tjcrks  take  Constantinople Tnrks-a/ul 

1492  j4nif?'2cn  discovered  by  Columbus America-6o??e 

1517  The  Reformation  in  Germany  begun  by  Luther Reform-ara;j 

1603  Union  of  England  and  Scotland  under  James  J. 3a.m-asait 

1620  Plymouth,  Mass.,  settled  by  the  Puritans Plymoulh-Aawcz 

1688  iJeu(5/)^/ion  in  England Revolut-osooA 

1776  /ndcpwzfZewce  of  the  United  States  declared Independen-a;5oiV 

1789  First  French  Revolution Revolut-a/ioon 

1801  Bonaparte  crowned  emperor  of  France Bonapart-6oozo 

1815  Battle  of  Waterloo Wa.teT\akbu 

1843  France  declared  a  republic Kepubl-oAo* 


SACRED   HISTORY. 


The  lustorical  parts  of  the  Bible  treat  chiefly  of  the  histoiy  of  tha 
fsni^iti's  or  Jaws.  The  other  principal  source  of  information,  in  addition 
to  tlic  Scriptures,  relating;  to  the  ancient  history  of  the  Israelites,  is  to  l>o 
found  in  tlie  writings  of  Josppkus,  a  Jewish  historian,  who  lived  in  the  time 
of  tlic  destruction  of  Jenisalcm  by  the  Komans.  The  Old  Testament  his- 
tory of  the  Israelites  ends  with  the  book  of  Nehemiah,  about  440  years 
B.  C. ;  and,  from  this  time  to  the  bu'th  of  Cluist,  Josephus  is  the  principal 
authority  for  Jewish  histor}^ 

The  Israelites  were  descended  from  Abraham,  who  was  called,  according 
to  the  common  computation,  427  years  after  the  Deluge,  and  1921  B.  C, 
to  separate  himself  "from  his  kindred  and  his  father's  house"  [seo 
Genesis  xil.],  and  who  received  a  promise  that  the  Messiah  should  be  of 
his  posterity. 

They  were  called  IMireics,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  from  Eher  or 
Jlchei;  an  ancestor  of  Al)raham  ;  Israelites,  from  Jacob,  who  was  surnamed 
Israel ;  and  Jews,  from  Judah,  one  of  the  twelve  sons  of  Jacob,  the  head 
or  ]iatriarch  of  the  principal  of  the  Twelve  Tribes. 

Jacob,  with  his  sons  and  their  families,  consisting  of  70  persons,  mi- 
grated from  Canaan  to  Egypt,  1706  B.  C,  and  their  posterity  were,  in 
that  counii-y,  reduced  to  slavery.  After  a  residence,  according  to  Calmet, 
of  215  years,  they  were  liberated  from  Egyptian  bondage  by  Moses,  the 
great  Ileijrew  Lawgiver. 

After  wandering  40  years  in  the  wilderness,  they  took  possession  of 
Canaan,  imdcr  the  direction  of  Joshua. 

From  the  entrance  into  Canaan  to  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of 
Saul,  a  period  of  356  years,  they  were  govenied  by  a  succession  of  Jvdi/es. 
—  A  view  of  the  succession  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,  during  tlie 
continuance  of  the  monarchies,  is  given  h\  the  Tables  I.  and  //.  on  the 
following  pages. 

The  most  flourishing  jieriod  of  the  Israelitish  monai'chy  was  during  the 
reigns  of  David  and  Solomon. 

The  sceptre  of  Judah  descended  regularly,  except  dm'ing  the  nsnr- 
])ation  of  Alhnliah,  from  father  to  son,  in  the  family  of  David,  till  the 
death  of  Josiak,  three  of  whose  sons  were,  for  a  short  time,  raised  to  the 
throne. 

During  nearly  all  the  period  of  the  Old  Testament  history  of  the 
Israelites,  the  nation  manifested  a  strong  tendency  to  forsake  the  worship 
of  the  tnie  Ood,  and  to  fall  into  idolatry.  Many  of  the  kings  of  Juduh, 
and  all  the  kings  of  the  Toi  Tribes,  were  promoters  of  idolatrous  worship. 

The  history  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  subsequent  to  their  captivity  l)y  Shal- 
mancscr,  is  l)uried  in  nttcr  ol)scurity.  The  Jews,  or  snlijects  of  the  Idng- 
dom  of  Judah,  after  the  70  years'  Babylonish  ca])tivity,  returned,  5.36  B.  C., 
by  permission  of  Cyrus,  under  Zc.ruhbabel  then*  governor,  and  rebuilt  Jeru- 
salem and  the  Temple. 

After  this  period,  they  w-ere  subject  successively  to  the  Persians,  tho 
Ptolemies  qfluii/jit,  the  Si/ri(uis,  and  the  Maccabees,  till  03  B.  C,  wlien  they 
were  subjected  to  tlie  liomans  by  J^ompei/.  A.  D.  70,  Jenisalcm  was  taken 
and  destroyed  by  the  Bomans,  under  Titus,  and,  since  that  event,  the  Jews 
have  been  "dispersed  in  all  paits  of  Uie  world. 


344 


SACRED  mSTORY. 


B.C. 

1100 

95 

Chronological  Table  of  Kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah.| 

Kings. 

ys, 
40 

Kingdom  op  Israel  :  3  Kings :  120  Years. 

Prophets. 

Saul 

The  son  of  Kish,  the  first  kinj^  of  Is- 

Samuel 

rael  ;  is  engaged  in  war  with  the 

Philistines,  Amalekiies,  &e. ;   perse- 

cutes  David,  who  is   anointed  by 

Samuel  in  liis  stead ;  Saul  and  Jona- 

than slain  by  the  Philistines. 

55 

David 

40 

The  son  of  Jesse,  of  the  tribe  ofJitdah ; 
is  first  proclaimed  king  of  Judah,  af- 
terwards of  all  Israel ;  makes  Jeru- 
salem the  seat  of  his  kingdom  ;  sub- 
dues the  Philistines,  Edomites,  Ama- 
lekites,  Moabites,  &c. 

Nathan 
Gad 

14 

Solomon 

40 

Celebrated  for  wisdom ;  has  a  pacific, 
prosperous  reign ;  builds  the  Temple. 

After  the  death  of  Solomon,  ten  Tribes 
revolt  from  his  son  Rehoboam,  and 
two  separate  kingdoms  are  formed, 
Judah  and  Israel. 

1000 

75 

Kingdom  op  Jodah  :  19  Kings :  387  Years. 

Ahijah        1 

Rchoboam 

17 

Revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes. 

Iddo 

58 

Abijah 

3 

Gains  a  great  victory  over  Jeroboam. 

Sheraaiah 

55 

Asa 

41 

A  religious  king;  suppresses  idola- 
try ;  has  a  prosperous  reign. 

AKiriah      i 

! 
1 

14 

Jehoshaphat 

25 

A  religious  king ;  a  prosperous  reign ; 

Micaiah     i 

900 

89 

joins  Ahab  in  a  war  against  Syria. 

Elijah         1 

Jehoram 

1 

An  idolater;  slays  his  six  brothers. 

j 

85 

Aliaziah 

1 

Is  slain  by  Jehu. 

Elisha        j 

84 

(Athaliah) 

6 

Usurps ;  slays  all  the  ro.yal  family. 

! 

78 

Joasli  (or 

40 

Jehoash)  defeated  by  the*  Syi-ians. 

Jehoiada 

39 

Amaziah 

29 

Defeats  the  Edomites ;   is  defeated 
by  Joash ;  is  slain  in  a  conspiracy. 

Zachariah 

10 

Uzziah 

52 

Defeats  the  Philistines  and  Arabians ; 

Jonah 

800 

58 

16 

is  smitten  with  leprosy. 

Amos 

Jotham 

Has  a  prosperous  reign. 

Oded 

42 

Ahaz 

16 

Defeated  by  Pelcah  with  great  loss. 

Hosea 

2G 

Hezekiah 

28 

An  excellent  king ;  has  a  prosperous 

Micah 

700 

98 

reign.  —  Sennacherib'' s  repulse. 

Nahum       ; 

Manasseh 

55 

An  impious  king ;  is  caiTied  by  Esar- 

Isaiah         1 

haddon  in  chains  to  Babylon. 

Joel            1 

43 

Amon 

2 

An  idolatrous  king ;  is  murdered. 

41 

Josiah 

31 

An  excellent  king ;  great  reform ;  slain. 

Zephaniah 

9 

Jehoahaz  (or 

i 

Shallum) ;  carried  captive  into  Egypt. 

Habakkuk 

9 

Jehoiakim  (or 

11 

Eliakim) ;    is    carried  in   chains  to 

600 

98 

1 

Babylon. 

Jehoiachin  (or 

.Teconiah) ;  is  carried  to  Babylon. 

Obadiah 

98 

Zedekiah 

11 

The  king  and  the  nation  carried  cap- 
tive to  Babylon.    The  city  and  tem- 
ple  destroyed    by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
588  B.  C. 

The  captivity  lasted  70years,from  606 
B.  C.  to  Istyearof  Cyrus,  536  B.  C. 

Jeremiah 
Ezekiel 
Daniel        \ 
Haggai 
Zechariah 

Malachi,  the  last  of  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  lived  after  the  rebuilding  of  the  Templa 
The  political  condition  of  the  Jews  from  the  time  of  Zeriililxibol,  the  first  governor  aflei 
the  return  from  captivity,  vvaa  very  variable.    Jerusalem  was  taken  by  a  Roman  army 
under  Pom[)ey,  63  B  C,  and  Judea  w;u?  afterwards  reduced  to  a  ftonian  province. 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


345 


ClIUONOLOGICAL    TaBLE    OF    TITE    KINGDOM    OP    ISRAEL,    OR   THE 

Ten  TiiiBES  : — 19  Kings:  —  254  Years. 


I!.  ( 
1000 


900 


800 


75 


84 


26 


39 


KiiiM. 


Jeroboam  I. 


Nadab 
Baasha 

Elah 
Ziinri 

Omri 
Aliab 


Aliaziah 
Jehoram 

Jehu 


Jehoahaz 
Joash 

Jeroboam  II. 


Zecliariali 

Shallum 

Menahcm 

Pekaiah 

Pekah 


Hosbea 


G   O.- 


21 


1 

24 


12 
21 


28 


41 


10 

2 

20 


18 


Son  of  Nehat,  becomes  king  of  the  2hi  Tribes ; 
resides  first  at  Shec/icm,  afterwards  at  Tir- 
zah;  institutes  the  worship  of  golden  calves, 
one  at  Bellirl  and  another  at  Dan,  and  se- 
duces the  people  to  idolatry ;  overcome  by 
Abijah,  and  500,000  Israelites  slain. 

Son  oi'  Jeroboam  ;  slain  by  Baasha. 

Ustiqis  the  throne,  and  destroys  all  the  fam- 
ily of  Jeroboam ;  at  war  with  Asa. 

Son  of  Baasha ;  is  slain  by  Zimri. 

Usurps  the  throne;  destroys  therace  of  Baasha; 
after  a  reign  of  7  days  is  overcome  by  Omri. 

Founds  Samaria,  and  makes  it  the  capital. 

Son  of  Omri ;  notorious  for  impiety,  as  well  as 
his  {\\\ccn  Jezebel ;  seizes  the  vineyard  of  Aa- 
both  ;  wars  against  iiawoi/i  Gilcad ;  is  slain. 


Son  of  Ahab ;  wounded  by  a  fall,  and  dies. 

Samaria  besieged  by  Benhadad,  king  of  Sy- 
ria; the  inhabitants  in  great  distress. 

Destroys  .Tezebel  and  all  the  family  of  Ahab, 
and  the  priests  of  Baal,  but  maintains  the 
worship  of  Jeroboam's  golden  calves. 

Oppressed  by  Hazael,  king  of  Syria. 

Defeats  Benhadad  II.,  king  of  Syria;  also 
Amaziah ;  takes  Jerusalem. 

A  warlike  sovereign ;  has  a  prosperous  reign. 


After  this  reign  the  kingdom  hastens  to  its 
downfall ;  and  its  subsequent  histoiy  is  re- 
plete with  treason,  disorder,  and  misrule. 

An  Inteircgnvm  of  11  years. 

Is  slain  by  Shallum,  who  usurps  the  throne. 

After  a  reign  of  1  month  is  killed  by  3/eHa/ic?n. 

Becomes  ti'ibutary  to  Piil,  king  of  Assyria. 

Is  murdered  by  Pekah,  one  of  his  captains. 

Unites  with  Ilezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  besieg- 
es Jerus(dem;  defeats  Ahaz,  slays  120,000 
men,  and  takes  200,000  ;  is  overthrown  by 
Tiglathj/ileser,  who  carries  a  ])art  of  the 
Israelites  to  Syria:  slain  by  IJoshea. 

Becomes  trihutary  to  Shalmancscr,  king  of 
Assyria,  hut  applies  to  So,  king  of  Egyjjt, 
and  revolts.  Shalmaneser  besieges,  takes, 
and  demolishes  Samaria,  can-ics  the  Israel- 
ites captive  into  Assyria  and  Media,  and 
puts  an  end  to  the  kingdom,  B.  C.  721. 


Tho  subseqiient  history  of  Iho  Ten  Tribes  is  buried  in  obscurity.  The  country  waa 
afterwards  ropeopled  by  colonies  from  Assyria,  whose  descendants  adopted  tlie  Law  of 
Moses  as  contained  in  the  Pentateuch,  which  thoy  regarded  as  the  only  inspired  Ixjok  ; 
Bnd  they  were  called  Sanmrifans,  from  the  chief  city  of  the  country.  The  Samaritans 
built  a  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim.  They  were  always  at  variance  with  the  Jews,  by 
whom  they  were  despised  and  hated  as  heretics. 


346 


ERAS  IN  MODERN  HISTORY. 


A.  D. 

800 

9lfi 

900 

Wl/i 

1000 

nth 

1100 

12t/i 

1200 


Eras  in  Modern  History. 


New  Empire  of  the  West  under  Charlemagne  formed. 
The  Kingdom  of  England  begins.     The  Saxon  Heptarchy  ends. 


The  Normans  under  Rollo  take  possession  of  Normandy. 
Otho  the  Great,  emperor  of  Germany,  conquers  Italy. 


70 

1300  (^ 

14 


46 
47 
58 
i53 
55 
79 
86 
92 
97 
1500^7 

21 
22 


nth 


1400 


ibth 


William  the  Conqueror  (battle  of  Hastinqs)  conquers  England. 
FIRST  CRUSADE  to  the  Holy  Land  :  Peter  the  Hermit. 


Second  Crusade,  excited  by  St.  Bernard. 

Third  Crusade,  under  Richard  I.  of  England  and  Philip  Au- 
gustus of  France. 


Fourth  Crusade,  under  Baldwin,  who  takes  Constantinople. 
Magna  Charta  signed  by  King  John  of  England. 
Gengiiis-Khan,  emperor  of  the  Moguls,  overruns  the  Saracen 
End  of  the  Caliphate  of  Bagdad.  [empire 

fM.st  Crusade,  under  St.  Louis  IX.  of  Francei 


Robert  Bruce  defeats  Edward  II.  of  England  at  Bannockburn. 
Edward  III.  of  England  gains  the  battle  of  Cressy. 
Great  Plague  in  Europe  ;  said  to  carry  off  ^  of  the  inhabitants. 
Timur  Bek  or  Tamerlane  commences  his  reign  and  conquests. 


1600 


Uth 


1700  j^ 


ISth 


1800 


19/A 


TURKS  take  Constantinople ;  end  of  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire. 
The  York  and  Lancaster  War  begins  in  England  ;  lasts  30  years. 
Arragon  and  Castile  united,  forming  the  kingdom  of  Spain. 
The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  discovered  by  Bartholomew  Diaz. 
AMERICA  discovered  by  Columbus. 
Vasco  de  Gama  reaches  India  Ijy  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 


Reformation  by  L«?/(cr.  — 1519.  CharlesV.  emp.  of  Germany. 

Mexico  conquered  by  Cortes. 

The  Globe  first  circumnavigated  by  Magellan's  squadron :   by 

Drake  in  1580. 
The  Civil  Wars  in  France  begin,  conducted  by  Conde  and  Guise. 
The  Republic  of  Holland  begins  by  the  union  of  Utrecht. 
The  Calendar  reformed  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 


Union  of  the  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland. 

First  English  settlement  in  America,  at  Jamestown,  Virginia. 

First  English  establishment  in  Hindostan. 

Peace  of  Westphalia  or  Munsf.er :  end  of  the  30  Years'  War. 

Charles  I.  of  England  beheaded  :  the  Commonwealth  begins. 

Revolution  in  England  ;  abdication  of  James  II. 


Peace  of  Utrecht  between  France  and  the  Allies. 

Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle ;  end  of  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Suc- 

New  Style  introduced  into  England.  [cession. 

Peace  of  Paris ;  Canada  ceded  by  France  to  England. 
76 j  The  INDEPENDENCE  of  the  United  States  declared. 
89  The  FRENCH  REVOLUTION;  — completed  in  1792-93. 


2 1  Peace  of  Amiens,  between  England,  France,  Spain,  and  Holland 
4  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE  emperor  of  France. 
6  End  of  the  German  Empire. 

12  War  between  the  U.  States  and  England  begins:  ends  in  1814. 

15  The  Battle  of  WATERLOO;  the  empire  of  Bonaparte  over- 
-    thrown  ;  Congress  of  Euro]Dean  sovereigns  at  Vienna. 

29  Peace  of  Adrianople  between  Russia  and  Turkey. 

3(i\New  Revolution  in  France  ;   Charles  X.  dethroned. 

32  j  The  Reform  Bill  passes  the  British  Parliament. 

33 1  Act  for  the  abolition  o?  Slavery  in  the  British  Colonies. 

48  New  Revolution  in  France  ;  Louis  Philippe  dethroned  ;  the  mon- 
archy overthrown,  and  a  Republican  Government  established. 


TABLE  OF  INVENTIONS. 


347 


A.  I). 

900 
1000 
1100 

Vith 

1200 


VMh 


1300 


Uth 


1400 


1500 


iUh 


1600 


17  th 


1700 


Chronological  Table  of  Inventions. 


Tlie  Figures  of  Anlhmetic  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Saracens. 
Clocks  with  toothed  wlieels  invented  in  Erance  by  Gerbert. 
Paper  made  of  cotton  rags  in  use. 
Suntaines  begin  to  be  used  by  the  nobility. 


The  Pandects  of  Roman  Law  discovered  at  Amalfi. 
The  first  regular  Bank  at  Venice. 


1800 


Linen  first  made  in  England. 

Glass  Mirrors  and  Ufar/nifi/inr/-  Glasses  invented  by  R.  Bacon, 
to  1 .311 .  S/icctacles  invented  by  Bacon,  Salvinus,Ai"matus  &  Spina, 
Tallow  Candles  begin  to  be  used. 


Chimneys  and  Glass  Windoivs  begin  to  be  used  in  private  houses 

The  Mai-iner''s  Compass  improved  by  Flavio  Gioia. 

to  40.  GUNPOWDER  invented  at  Cologne  by  Swartz. 

Cannon  used  at  the  siege  of  Algeziras:  Muskets  in  use  in  1370. 

Clocks  in  use  :  first  made  in  England  in  1568. 

Playing-  Cards  invented :  first  Paper-Mill  in  Germany. 


Painting  in  oil-colors  invented  at  Bruges  by  Van  Eyck. 
Art  of  PRINTING  invented  by  Coster,  Guttenberg,  &c. 
Post-Offices  established  in  France  :  in  England  in  1581. 
Printing  introduced  into  England  by  William  Caxton. 
Watches  made  at  Nuremberg :  in  use  in  England  in  1597. 
Maps  and  Cliarts  brought  into  England  by  Barthol.  Columbus. 


Tlie  Spinning-  Wheel  invented  at  Brunswick  by  Jurgen. 

The  true  SOLAR  SYSTEM  revived  by  Copernicus. 

Needles  first  made  in  England. 

First  treatise  on  Decimal  Arithmetic  published  at  Bruges. 

Potatoes  introduced  into  England  from  America. 

to  1620.  The  Telescope^  by  Porta,  Jansen,  Drebell,  and  Galileo 


The  Thermometer  invented  by  Sanctorius,  Drebell,  and  Galileo. 

I^ogarithins  invented  in  Scotland  by  Napier. 

The  Circulation  of  the.  Blood  discovered  by  Hai-vey. 

The  first  Gazette  or  Newspaper  at  Venice  :  in  England  in  1665. 

Coffee  first  brought  into  England  :  Tea  in  1666. 

The  Barometer  invented  by  Torricelli  and  Pascal. 

The  Air-Pump  invented  at  Magdeburg  by  Gucricke. 

The  Steam-Engine  invented  :  improved  by  Watt  in  1768. 

Saturn's  Ring  discovered  by  Iluyghens. 

The  Neictonian  Philosophy  jniblished  in  England. 


Inoculation  introduced  into  England  fi-om  Turkey. 

Stereotype  Printing  inycnted  bv  Ged ;  introduced  by  Di dot,  1799. 

TIu!  identity  of  Lightning  and  'Electricity  ascertained  by  Franklin, 

The  Spinning-Jenny  invented  by  Arkwright. 

The  planet  Uranus  or  Jlerschel  discovered  by  Herschel. 

The  Cotton- Gin  invented  by  Whitney. 

VACCINATION  discovered  and  introduced  by  Dr.  Jenner 

Galvanism  discovered  by  Galvani. 

Lithography  invented  at  Munich  by  Sennefelder. 


7  The  first  STEAMBOAT  on  the  Hudson. 
1 6  The  Safety-Lamp  invented  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy. 
30JThe  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railroad  opened;   the  first  on 

which  locomotive  steam-carriages  were  used. 
38] The  Great  Western,  Steamship,  makes  her  first  voyage,  crossing 

the  Atlantic,  from  Bristol,  England,  to  New  York. 
42jThe  use  of  the  Eleotuic  Telegraph  introduced. 
46 1  The  use  of  Ether  in  surgical  operations  introduced. 


QUESTIONS. 


N.  B.  The  ni^mbars  prefixed  to  the  followiiisr  duesliojis  correspond  to  the  paragrapht 
ill  the  Volume  ;  so  that  the  student  will  readily  see  whore  to  seek  for  every  answer.  It 
will  be  perceived  that,  in  many  instances,  the  answers  to  three  or  four  questions  are  to 
be  found  in  one  paragraph. 


USES  OF  PIISTORY. 

1.  What  is  history  ?     What  is  said  of  the  study  of  it  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  history,  compared  with  novels  and  romances  ? 

3  On  what  is  the  general  taste  for  history  founded  ■?  Wliat  view  does 
it  afford  of  human  nature  ? 

4.  What  is  a  higher  use  of  history  ?  Wliat  has  it  been  styled  ?  What 
does  it  add  to  our  own  experience  ■? 

5.  With  what  does  it  make  us  acquainted  ?  From  what  does  it  serve  to 
free  the  mind  ? 

6.  To  what  class  of  persons  is  history  indispensable  1  Of  what  do  we 
gain  a  knowledge  by  history  ? 

7.  What  further  does  history  show  and  teach  us  ? 

8.  What  influence  has  it  on  the  character  ?  How  does  it  make  virtue 
appear,  —  and  vice  ?  Wliat  does  the  reader  of  history  leam  to  connect 
>vith  true  glory  ? 

9  What  does  histoiy  teach  us  has  been  often  done  under  the  direction 
of  Providence  t 

10.  Why  does  a  knowledge  of  history  tend  to  render  us  contented  with 
our  condition  in  life  ? 


THE   SOURCES   OF  HISTORY. 

1.  What  is  the  first  source  of  history  1  Wlio  derived  his  historj'  chiefly 
from  this  source  ? 

2.  What  is  the  second  source  1     WItat  instances  are  menlioned  1 

3.  What  is  the  third  source  ?  4.  The  fourth  ?  5.  The  hfth  ?  6.  The 
Bixth  ■?  To  what  century  do  the  most  ancient  coins  that  bave  been  found 
belong  ■? 

7.  What  is  the  seventh  source  of  history  "?  "What  is  the  most  celebrated 
collection  of  marbles  of  this  kind  ? 

8.  Wiat  is  the  most  important  of  these  inscriptions  ?   What  is  said  of  it  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  hieroglyphics,  paintings,  and  sculptures  ? 

DIVISIONS  OF  HISTORY. 

1 .  How  is  history  divided  with  respect  to  tune  ? 

2.  What  is  Ancient  History  ?     Modem  History  ? 

3.  What  other  eras  do  some  historians  adopt  for  the  dividing  points  ? 

4.  What  is  a  third  division  of  history  ?    What  does  this  period  comprise  ? 

30 


350  EGYPT —THE  PHCENICIANS. 

5.  What  is  said  farther  of  the  Middle  Ages  ? 

6.  By  what  is  Ancient  History  distin<!;nished  1 

7.  By  what  are  the  Middle  Ages  characterized  1    By  what  has  the  last 
half  century  been  characterized  1 

8.  By  what  is  Modem  History  distinguished  f 

9.  How  is  history  divided  with  regard  to  subject  ? 

10.  What  is  Sacred  History?    Profane  History?     Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory ?     Civil  History  ? 

11.  How  ftu-  back  docs  Sacred  History  go,  and  what  was  the  length  of 
time  from  the  creation  to  the  Christian  era  1 

12.  What  is  said  of  Geology  ? 

13.  Wlio  is  the  earliest  profane  historian  ?    When  did  he  write,  and  of 
what  nations  ? 

14.  What  is  said  of  the  history  of  the  world  before  the  time  when  the 
history  of  Herodotus  begins  ? 

15. 'What  is  said  of  our  knowledge  of  the  early  history  of  the  world  ? 
What  is  the  only  source  of  this  information  ? 

1 6.  What  are  some  of  the  most  remarkable  events  respecting  the  early 
history  of  the  world  recorded  in  the  Bible  ? 

17.  What  are  the  most  important  portions  of  profane  history  ? 

18.  What  is  said  of  the  history  of  the  Middle  or  Dark  Ages  ? 

19.  What  portions  of  history  are  the  best  known  ? 


EGYPT. 

1 .  Why  does  Egypt  hold  a  conspicuous  place  in  history  ?    What  nation 
derived  its  information  cliiefly  from  it  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  ancient  history  of  Egypt  ? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  works  of  ancient  grandeur? 

4.  "What  is  said  of  the  glory  of  Thebes  ? 

5.  What  city  supplanted  Thebes  ?     "What  is  said  of  the  description 
given  of  Thebes  by  Strabo  and  Diodorns  ? 

6.  How  was  the  place  of  alphabetic  ^vriting  supplied  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  researches  of  Champollion  and  other  learned  men  ■* 

8.  What  is  said  of  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  ? 

9.  What  of  the  government  and  the  kings  ? 

10.  What  is  said  of  the  laws  and  customs  ? 

11.  To  what  was  every  person  subject  after  his  death  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  the  armies  and  weapons  of  the  Egyptians  ? 

13.  Who  was  the  first  king  that  is  known  ?    What  is  said  of  his  suc- 
cessors ? 

14.  Who  was  the  most  distinguished  king  ? 

15.  What  other  kings  are  mentioned  ? 

16.  Who  is  the  next  distinguished  sovereign  ?     "What  is  said  of  him  ' 

17.  Who  conquered  Egypt,  525  B.  C.  ?     In  what  manner? 

18.  By  whom  was  it  wrested  from  Persia  ?    What  was  its  situatioc  after 
the  death  of  Alexander  ? 


THE  PHCENICIANS. 

1    What  is  said  of  the  Phoenicians  and  their  history  ? 

2.  What  are  they  styled  in  the  Scriptures,  and  what  were  their  chief 
cities  ? 

3.  Of  what  were  they  the  reputed  inventors  ? 

4.  To  what  places  did  they  send  colonies  ?    By  whom  did  Tyre  suflFer 
memorable  sieges  ? 


ASSYRIA   AND   BABYLON.  —  GREECE.  351 


ASSYRIA  AND  BABYLON. 

1 .  Wliat  is  said  of  Assyria  ?  Who  founded  Babylon  1  What  is  said 
of  their  histoiy  1 

2.  What  is  commonly  supposed  respecting  Assyria  and  Babylon  ?  "Wliat 
i.s  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Gillies  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  Ninus  and  Semiramis  ? 

4.  liow  is  Ninus  represented  'i     How  is  Semiramis  described  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  the  history  of  the  empire  from  the  time  of  Ninyas  to 
Sanlanapalus  1 

f.  What  is  said  of  Sardanapalus  ?  Wlio  excited  a  rebellion  against 
himi 

7.  What  took  place  with  regard  to  the  empire  ? 

8.  Who  were  the  four  successors  of  Pul  ? 

9.  Who  put  an  end  to  the  Assyrian  monarchy  ? 

10.  By  whom  was  Nabopolassar  or  Nebuchadnezzar  succeeded  ■? 

11.  AVhat  took  place  during  the  reign  of  Belshazzar  1 

12.  Wliat  is  said  of  Babylon  after  the  conquest?  What  is  its  present 
state  ? 

13.  Wliat  is  said  of  Nineveh?  What  has  lately  been  discovered  on  its 
site? 

PERSLA.. 

1 .  What  is  said  of  Persia  1  What  is  the  state  of  its  history  prior  to  the 
reign  of  Cyrus  ?  Wliat  was  it  originally  called  ?  Who  was  the  founder 
of  the  great  Persian  empire  1    What  countries  did  it  comprise  t 

2.  To  whom  are  we  indebted  for  the  histoiy  of  Persia  f  What  is  said 
of  the  Persian  historians  1     Which  arc  entitled  to  most  credit  ? 

3.  Wliat  is  said  of  Cyrus  1     What  did  he  perform  ? 

4.  Wliat  ancients  have  written  accounts  of  Cyrus  ?  Who  have  followed 
Xenophon  ?     What  was  Xenophon's  supposed  design  *? 

5.  What  is  said  of  Cambyses  ?     Of  Smerdis  ?     Darius  f 

6.  Who  succeeded  Darius  ?  What  is  said  of  him  ?  To  whom  did  he 
leave  the  empire  ? 

7.  Who  were  the  other  two  principal  sovereigns  1 

8.  Wlien  did  Cyrus  begin  to  reign?  Darius  Hystaspes?  Darius 
Codomanus  ? 

GREECE. 

Section  L 

1.  What  was  the  extent  of  Greece  ?  How  was  it  bounded-^  tVTiat  is 
its  general  aspect  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  this  country  ?  For  what  were  the  inhabitants  re- 
noAvned  ? 

3.  What  did  Greece  comprise  ?  How  did  these  states  differ  ?  How 
were  they  united  ? 

4.  What  was  the  fonn  of  government  in  the  early  ages  ?  What  form 
aftenvards  prevailed  ? 

5.  Wliat  is  said  of  the  history  of  these  republics  ?  Why  does  their  his- 
tory excite  interest  ? 

G.  What  were  Greece  and  the  inhabitants  called  by  the  natives  ?  What 
do  the  poets  stylo  the  Greeks  ?  From  whom  were  the  original  inhabitanta 
descended  ? 

7.  Who  brought  to  Greece  the  first  rudiments  of  civilization  ? 


352  GREECE. 


Section  II. 

1 .  Into  how  many  general  periods  may  the  history  of  Greece  be  distin 
guished  1     What  is  the  first "?     Wliat  the  second  1 

2.  How  many  years  does  the  first  period  comprise  1     What  is  said  of  it  ? 

3.  Into  how  many  siibdivisions  may  this  period  be  distinguished  f 
Wlien  does  the  fii'st  period  begin  and  end,  and  what  may  it  be  termed  ? 
The  second  ?     The  tliird  1     The  fourth  1 

4.  AVhat  does  the  second  general  division  (the  period  of  authentic  his 
tory)  comprise  ?     Wliat  is  said  of  its  history  ? 

5.  Into  how  many  parts  may  this  period  be  divided "?  Wlien  does  the 
first  begin  and  end,  and  what  is  said  of  it  ?  The  second  1  The  tliird  ? 
The  fourth  ? 

Section  III. 

1 .  What  does  the  fabulous  age  comprise  ? 

2.  By  whom  was  Si<;yon  founded  ?  Ai-gos  ?  Athens  ?  Thebes  ? 
Corinth  1     Mycense  ?    Lacedamon  ? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  memorable  events  of  this  period  ?  What  else 
does  it  embrace  ? 

4.  What  was  the  first  great  enterprise  recorded  of  the  Greeks  ?  By 
whom  was  it  commanded  1  Who  were  some  of  the  heroes  who  accompa- 
nied Jason  ■? 

5.  Why  were  they  called  Argonauts  ?  What  was  their  object  1  What 
is  said  of  the  fleece  ? 

Section  IV. 

1.  To  what  has  the  hei'oic  age  been  compared?  What  difference  is 
mentioned  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Gothic  nations  ? 

2.  On  whose  authority  does  the  history  of  the  Trojan  war  rest?  Wliat 
is  said  of  the  lUad "? 

3.  What  is  said  of  Helen  ?  To  what  oath  did  her  father  bind  her 
suitors  ?     Who  was  the  favored  individual  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  Paris  ?     Wliat  did  he  do  on  visiting  Sparta  ? 

5.  What  was  the  effect  of  this  treachery  "*  How  many  vessels  and  men 
were  conveyed  to  the  Trojan  coast '^  "VVho  was  chosen  commander-in- 
chief?     Who  were  some  of  the  other  most  celebrated  princes  ? 

6.  By  whom  were  the  Trojans  commanded  ?  "What  was  the  final  result 
of  the  siege  ? 

7.  When  did  the  return  of  the  Heraclida;  take  place  ? 

8.  What  is  said  of  Hercules  ?     How  long  was  it  after  his  banishment 
'when  his  descendants  returned  ?     What  was  the  consequence  of  it  ? 

9.  What  was  the  effect  of  this  revolution  ? 

Section  V. 

1.  What  were  the  two  leading  states  of  Greece,  and  how  were  they  dis- 
tinguished ?     How  were  their  different  characters  formed  ? 

2.  Of  what  was  Sparta  the  capital  ?  How  was  the  government  ad- 
ministered ? 

3.  Who  was  Lycurgus  ?     With  what  duty  was  he  intrusted  ? 

4.  What  did  he  accomplish  ?  What  senate  did  he  institute  ?  What  did 
ho  do  respecting  the  two  kings  ?     How  did  he  divide  the  tenitory  ? 

5.  Wliat  measiu'e  did  he  take  respecting  commerce,  &c.  ?  How  did  the 
citizens  take  their  food  ? 

6.  What  was  the  situation  of  every  citizen  ?  What  was  the  regulation 
respecting  infants  ? 

7.  Wliat  was  the  fact  respecting  letters  ?  How  were  tlie  Spartans  dis- 
tinguished ?    For  what  were  they  noted  ? 


GREECE.  353 

8.  What  were  the  young  especially  taught  ?  What  further  regulationa 
were  made  respecting  them  ? 

9.  W7iat  were  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  adapted  to  form  ?  What 
was  considered  the  great  business  of  life  t  \Vliat  virtues  were  chei-ished, 
and  what  were  saciiticed  ? 

10.  "SMiat  is  said  of  the  women  ?  "Wliat  was  their  education  calculated 
to  give  them  1     What  cliarge  did  a  mother  give  her  son  ? 

11.  How  long  did  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  continue  in  force  1 
Wliat  is  said  of  tlie  power  and  inliuence  of  Sparta  ? 

12.  What  took  place  in  process  of  time  1    How  were  changes  introduced  ? 

Section  VI. 

1.  What  is  said  of  Athens  ?     For  what  is  it  distinguished  ? 

2.  Who  was  the  last  king  of  Athens "?  AVhat  took  place  after  his  death  ? 
Wliat  is  said  of  the  office  of  the  archons  ? 

3.  By  whom  was  the  first  code  of  wi'itten  laws  prepared  for  Athens  ■? 
What  is  said  of  these  laws  ?  What  reason  did  Draco  give  for  the  severity 
of  his  punishments  1 

4.  Who  afterwards  framed  a  new  system  of  laws  ?  Wliat  did  SoloQ 
attempt  to  do  1     Wliat  did  he  say  of  his  laws  ? 

5.  In  whom  did  he  vest  the  supreme  power  ?  What  was  done  by  this 
assembly  1     Of  what  number  did  the  senate  consist  1 

6.  Wliat  did  he  encourage  ?     Wliat  further  is  said  I'espeeting  his  laws  ? 

7.  What  effects  did  the  different  laws  of  Athens  and  Sparta  produce  ? 
Wliat  were  the  difl'erences  at  the  two  cities  1  How  were  an  Atlienian  and 
a  Spartan  characterized  ■? 

8.  What  happened  before  tlie  deatli  of  Solon  ?  How  long  did  Pisistratus 
and  his  sons  continue  in  power  ?     What  is  said  of  liis  government  ? 

9.  To  whom  did  Pisistratus  ti-ansmit  the  sovereignty '?  By  whom  were 
they  detlironed  ?    What  was  their  fate  ? 

Section  VII. 

1 .  What  period  is  esteemed  the  most  glorious  age  of  Greece  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  victories  of  the  inhabitants  over  the  Persians  ? 

2.  ^Vhat  was  the  state  of  Persia  at  this  period?  What  colonics  and 
countries  were  subject  to  it "? 

3.  What  gave  oifence  to  Darius  1     What  did  he  resolve  to  do  ? 

4.  What  step  did  Darius  first  take  1     How  were  his  heralds  received  ? 

5.  How  did  Darius  begin  his  liostile  attack  ?  Wliat  was  the  fate  of  the 
first  Persian  fleet  1  What  was  done  by  a  second  fleet  ?  How  numerous 
was  the  amiy  that  invaded  Attica  1    By  whom  was  it  commanded  ? 

6.  Wliere  and  by  whom  was  tliis  host  met  1  "What  was  the  loss  on 
each  sidel 

7.  How  was  the  merit  of  Miltiades  repaid  ?    What  happened  to  him  ? 

8.  Wliat  were  the  parties  into  wliich  the  Athenians  were  divided  ?  Who 
were  the  two  leaders  1 

9.  Wliat  is  said  of  Aristides  1  "WTiat  happened  while  the  people  were 
giving  their  votes  for  his  exile  ?     "Wliat  did  Aristides  do  ? 

10.  Wliat  caused  a  discontinuance  of  the  Persian  war  1  By  whom  was 
it  renewed  ?     How  large  an  army  is  Xerxes  said  to  have  collected  ? 

11.  Of  what  did  his  fleet  consist?  What  canal  and  bridges  were 
formed  ? 

12.  Why  did  Xerxes  shed  tears  on  vie^\•ing  tlie  vast  assemblage  ? 

13.  Wliat  coiu'se  was  taken  by  the  Persians  ?  Who  was  leader  of 
Athens  ?     Wliat  states  took  pai-t  with  Athens  ? 

14.  Wliat  did  Leonidas  undertake  ?    What  reply,  did  he  give  to  tha 

30* 


354  GREECE. 

herald  of  Xerxes,  who  commanded  him  to  deliver  up  his  arms  ?    What 
followed  ? 

15.  What  course  did  Leonidas  take?  What  was  tlie  result?  What 
inscription  was  \vi-ittcn  on  the  monument  erected  on  the  s])Ot  1 

16.  Wliat  did  the  Persians  now  do?  What  course  did  the  Athenians 
take  ? 

17.  For  what  were  preparations  now  made  ?  Of  what  did  the  two  fleets 
consist  ?  Who  commanded  the  Grecian  fleet  ?  Where  did  the  engage- 
ment take  place  ?     Wliat  was  tlic  issue  ? 

18.  Who  was  left  hy  Xei'xcs  to  complete  the  conquest  of  Greece? 
Wliere  and  by  whom  was  this  anny  met  ?     What  was  the  issue  ? 

19.  What  took  place  on  the  same  day  of  the  victory  of  Platsea  ?  Wliat 
happened  to  Xerxes  ? 

20.  Wliat  course  did  the  Greeks  pursue  ?  By  whom  were  the  Spartans 
and  Athenians  commanded  ?     What  did  they  accomplish  ? 

21.  "Wliat  is  related  of  Pausanias  ? 

22.  \\niat  is  related  of  Thcmistocles  ? 

23.  Wlio  took  the  direction  of  affairs  in  Athens  after  the  banishment  of 
Themistocles  ? 

24.  AVliat  victories  did  Cimon  gain? 

-     25.  "Wliat  afterwards  happened  to  Cimon  ?     Wlio  succeeded  him  ? 

26.  What  further  is  related  of  Cimon  ? 

27.  How  long  did  the  Persian  war  last  ?  What  were  the  conditions  of 
peace  ? 

28.  What  took  place  after  the  death  of  Cimon  ? 

29.  WHiat  is  said  of  the  govenimcnt  of  Pericles  ? 

30.  What  is  said  of  the  time  of  the  Persian  war  ?  What  took  place 
after  the  war  ^vith  Persia  ?     What  is  related  of  Athens  and  Sparta  ? 

31.  Wliat  was  the  effect  of  the  war  on  the  Athenians  ?  By  what  means 
did  they  reach  the  summit  of  political  influence  and  mOitary  power  ? 

32.  On  what  did  the  politics  of  Greece,  after  this,  turn  ?  What  is  said 
of  Athens  and  Sparta,  and  how  did  they  clift'er  ? 

33.  Wliat  took  place  from  this  period  ?  WHiat  was  the  eff'ect  of  an  ac- 
quaintance with  Asia  ?  How  was  tins  luxurious  spirit  du'eeted  by  the 
Athenians  ? 

Section  VIII. 

1 .  ^Vliat  was  the  origin  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  this  war  ?     How  was  it  carried  on  ? 

3.  Of  what  were  the  Athenians  accused  ? 

4.  "What  state  took  the  lead  ?  By  wliat  states  was  she  joined  ?  What 
allies  had  Athens  ?     "Wliat  did  the  forces  of  each  amount  to  ? 

5.  "Wliat  nvas  done  in  the  flrst  year  of  the  war  ?  "What  took  place  in  the 
second  year  ?     Was  the  war  aiTcstcd  by  the  plague  ? 

6.  Wlio  governed  Athens  after  the  death  of  Pericles  ?  What  is  said  of 
("Jleon  ?     "What  happened  after  his  deadi  ? 

7.  "Wliat  is  said  of  Alcibiades  ? 

8.  "Wlio  commanded  the  expedition  against  Sicily  ?  "Wliat  was  the 
issue  of  it  ? 

9.  "Wliat  is  said  of  Lysander  ?  "WTiat  was  next  done  by  the  Lacedae- 
monians ? 

10.  On  what  conditions  were  the  Athenians  spared  ?  How  did  the  Pe- 
loponnesian war  tenninate  ? 

11.  "Wliat  did  Lysander  do  after  the  reduction  of  Athens  ?  How  many 
citizens  did  the  thirty  tyrants  sacrifice  in  the  space  of  six  months  ?  What 
was  done  by  Thrasybulus  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  pure  democracy  at  Athens  ?  How  were  the  Athe- 
nians characterized  ? 


GREECE.  355 

13.  Who  is  at  once  the  gloiy  and  the  reproach  of  Athens?  What  is 
said  of  thi.s  philosopher  ? 

14.  What  is  rehited  of  him  during  liis  imprisonment  1 

15.  What  is  said  of  the  pliilosophy  of  Socrates?  What  did  he  do 
respecting  philosophy  ? 

1().  In  what  contest  were  upwards  of  10,000  Greek  mercenaries  em- 
ployed '!     Who  commanded  the  Greeks  in  their  retreat  ? 

1 7.  What  is  said  of  this  retreat  ? 

18.  How  did  the  Spart;ins  become  involved  in  the  war?  What  did 
the  king  of  Persia  effect  by  means  of  bribes  ?  What  course  did  Agcsilaus 
take? 

19.  How  was  the  war  ended  ?     What  were  the  conditions  of  peace  ? 

20.  What  state  now  rose  into  importance  ?  What  was  done  by  the 
Spartans  ?     By  whom  was  the  citadel  recovered  ? 

21.  What  then  ensued?  "What  were  the  losses  of  each  in  the  battle  of 
Leuctra  ? 

•22.  Wliat  was  then  done  by  the  Thebans  ?  How  long  had  it  been  since 
the  country  of  Laconia  had  been  ravaged  ? 

23.  What  course  did  the  Theban  commander  tlien  take  ?  Wliat  other 
victory  did  he  gain  ? 

24.  What  is  said  of  Epaminondas  ? 

2.5.  By  what  was  the  battle  of  Mantinea  followed  ?  In  what  did  the 
Spaitans  next  engage  ?     Wliat  was  the  issue  ? 

Section  IX. 

1.  Wiat  is  said  of  the  histoiy  of  Greece  after  the  death  of  Agesilaus? 
"Wliat  was  the  situation  of  the  Grecian  affairs  ? 

2.  Wliat  is  said  of  Athens  at  this  time?  "What  of  Sparta?  "Wliat 
project  did  Philip  form  ? 

3.  "What  is  said  of  the  kingdom  of  Macedon  ?  Who  were  the  inhabit 
ante  ? 

4.  ^Yliat  is  said  of  the  Macedonian  empire  ?  "Wliy  is  it  sometimes 
called  the  Grecian  empire  ? 

5.  Under  whom  was  Philip  educated  ?  "Wliat  is  further  said  of  him  ? 
Wliat  measures  did  he  adopt  to  bring  the  states  of  Greece  under  his  do- 
minion ? 

6.  "Wliat  was  the  cause  of  the  Sacred  War  ?  What  states  took  part  in 
the  contest  ? 

7.  What  course  did  Philip  adopt?  Wiat  was  he  styled  ?  "Wliat  course 
did  the  Athenians  take  ? 

8.  Wliat  circumstance  again  drew  Philip  into  Greece  ?  What  was  the 
occasion  of  it  ?  "Wliat  states  resisted  Philip  ?  What  was  the  result  of  the 
contest  ? 

9.  What  measures  did  the  conqueror  adopt  ? 

10  ^liat  did  Philip  next  project  ?     "Wliat  happened  to  him  ? 

1 1  By  whom  was  Philip  succeeded  ?     "What  is  said  of  Alexander  ? 

12.  WliJit  was  done  by  Demosthenes?  "Wliat  course  did  Alexander 
take  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  the  Thebans  ?  What  was  the  effect  of  tlicsc 
acts  ? 

13.  What  were  Alexander's  next  measures  ?  Who  were  his  companions 
in  arms  ? 

14.  With  what  force  did  he  cross  the  Hellespont?  To  what  place  did 
he  first  proceed  ?     "Wliat  did  he  say  respecting  Achilles  ? 

15.  Where  did  the  Persian  satraps  meet  him  ?  Wliat  were  the  losses 
on  each  side  iu  the  battle  of  the  Granicus  ?  "Wliat  is  here  mentioned  re- 
specting Alexander  ? 

16.  "What  were  the  consequences  of  this  victory  ? 


356  GREECE. 

17.  What  battle  was  fought  in  the  next  spring  ?  What  was  the  nurabei 
of  the  Persian  anny  ?  What  were  the  losses  '{  Wliere  did  tlie  engage- 
ment take  place  1 

18.  Who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror?  What  offer  did  Dariua 
make  Alexander,  in  consequence  of  his  generous  conduct  1 

19.  Wliat  did  PaiTnenio  say  of  the  offer?  V/luit  was  Alexander's  re- 
ply '?     Wliat  answer  did  he  return  to  the  proposal  ? 

20.  What  was  his  next  course  ?  What  was  the  consequence  of  the 
T\Tians  refusing  liis  demand  ?     Wiiat  j)iuce  of  cruelty  did  he  exercise  ? 

21.  Wliat  was  his  next  exploit  1 

22.  Wliither  did  he  then  proceed  "?  Wliat  did  he  accomplish  ?  What 
city  did  he  found  ? 

23.  WHiat  proposal  did  he  receive  from  Darius  on  his  return  1  What 
answer  did  he  return  "^ 

24.  With  how  large  an  army  did  he  cross  the  Euphrates  ?  Wliat  losses 
were  sustained  in  the  battle  that  followed  ?  Wliere  was  this  battle  fought, 
and  what  is  it  called  1 

25.  AVhat  was  the  consequence  of  this  battle?  Wliat  has  since  been 
the  fiict  with  regard  to  Em-ope  ?  What  happened  to  Darius  and  the  em- 
pire ? 

2G.  Wliat  was  Alexander's  next  procedure  ?  What  course  did  his 
tioldiers  take? 

27.  To  what  city  did  Alexander  then  inarch  liis  army?  Wi  at  did  he 
do  here  ?     Wliere  and  in  vi'hat  manner  did  he  die  ? 

28.  What  is  said  of  Alexander  and  liis  course  ? 

29.  What  is  said  of  his  abilities  and  traits  of  character  ? 

30.  For  what  was  he  distinguished  in  the  early  part  of  his  career? 
What  aftei-wards  took  ]ilacc  ? 

31.  Of  what  acts  of  ingratitiiflu  and  injustice  was  he  guilty? 

32.  What  does  his  liistory  show  ? 

Section^  X. 

1.  "WTiat  did  Alexander  do  respecting  a  successor?  Ey  what  was  liis 
death  followed  ? 

2.  "WHio  was  appointed  by  his  generals  ?  How  was  the  empire  divided  ? 
What  followed  ?     Wliat  was  the  new  division  after  the  hattle  of  Ipsus  ? 

3.  What  was  the  end  of  the  kingdoms  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia  ? 
Wliat  is  said  of  Syi'ia  and  P^gypt  ? 

4.  Wliat  was  done  by  the  (Glrecian  states  during  Alexander's  conquests  ? 

5.  Wliat  effect  did  "the  news  of  Alexander's  death  have  at  Athens  ? 
By  whom  was  Demosthenes  opposed  ?  What  was  the  langu.age  of 
Phocion  ? 

G.  How  far  did  the  counsels  of  Demosthenes  prevail  ?  Wliat  Avas  the 
fate  of  Demosthenes  ? 

7.  By  whom  was  Antipater  succeeded  ?  What  took  place  at  Athens  ? 
What  is  related  of  Phocion  ? 

8  By  whom  was  Polyspcrclion  succeeded  ?  What  is  said  of  the  gor- 
ernir.ent  of  Demetrius  Phalereus  ? 

9.  What  was  the  state  of  Athens  aftenvards  ? 

10.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Grecian  states  from  this  period  ?  By 
whom  was  the  country  ravaged  ? 

11.  Who  next  invaded  Peloponnesus  ?     What  happened  to  him  ? 

12.  By  what  confederacy  was  the  last  effort  made  in  favor  of  Greece  1 
To  whom  was  the  government  of  this  confederacy  committed  ?  Wliat  de* 
sign  did  he  form  ? 

13.  By  whom  was  Aratus  sTiccecdcd  ?     Wliat  is  said  of  him  ? 

14.  Wliat  is  related  of  tlie  Konians  ?     "Wliat  was  accomplished  by  theil 


GiiEECi:.  231 

army  under  Quintins  Flaminius  ?  "Wliat  took  place  nearly  tliirty  years 
afterwards  ? 

15.  Wliat  part  did  the  Romans  take,  with  respect  to  the  Achaean  league  1 
"Wlio  sought  the  assistance  of  the  Romans  ?  What  was  done  by  MeteUas  ? 
Wiat  afterwards  took  place  1 

IG.  A\niat  is  said  of  Greece  after  she  became  subject  to  the  Romans  ' 
"Wliore  were  the  most  distinguished  Romans  educated  ? 

17.  Wliat  do  we  see  iu  reviewing  the  history  of  the  Greeks  1  In  what 
were  they  unrivalled  1 

18.  What  circumstance  must  impress  the  readers  of  the  history  of 
Athens  ?  Who  were  victims  of  this  injiistice  1  What  was  done  respecting 
Ihem  ■? 

I'J.  Wliat  is  said  respecting  the  supposed  virtuous  age  of  Greece? 
What  is  said  of  the  morality  of  the  Greeks  1 

20.  What  is  stated  by  Mitford  1 

21.  How  were  the  earlier  times  characterized?  How  was  it  in  a  later 
age  ?     What  had  the  liistory  of  the  world  demonstrated  ? 

Section  XI.  —  Grecian  Antiquities. 

Among  whom  did  the  most  of  the  ancient  sects  of  philosophy  have  their 
origin  ?     When  did  Grecian  literature  flourish  most  ? 

^Vhat  is  said  of  the  Ionic  sect  ?  The  Italian  or  Pythagorean  sect  ? 
The  Socratic  School  1  The  Cynics  ?  The  Academic  sect  ?  The  Peri- 
patetic sect  ?     The  Sceptical  sect  ?     The  Stoic  sect  ?     The  Epicureans  ? 

What  docs  Tytler  say  respecting  the  Greek  philosophy  ?  What  com'se 
did  its  teachers  pursue  ? 

Who  were  most  illustrious  Grecian  poets  ? 


■\Vlio  were  famous  statuaries  ?    Painters  ?     Historians  ? 


Who  were  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece  ? 


By  whom  is  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons  supposed  to  have  been  in- 
stituted ?  Of  what  was  it  '"'"r^tposed  ?  Of  how  many  deputies  did  it 
consiist  ?     When  and  where  am  tliey  meet  ? 

What  were  the  objects  of  this  assembly  ? 

On  what  occasions  were  the  Greeks  in  the  habit  of  consulting  oracles? 
What  v/ere  their  most  celebrated  oracles  ? 

What  were  the  four  public  games  in  Greece  ?  Wliat  exercises  were 
practised  at  these  games  ? 

What  is  said  of  nmning,  leaping,  and  boxing  ? 

In  honor  of  whom  were  the  (')l\Tnpic  games  instituted  ?  "Where  and 
when  were  tiiey  celel)ratcd  ?  What  did  they  draw  together  ?  What 
]ircparation  was  required? 

What  oath  were  the  contenders  obliged  to  take  ?  Wliat  was  the  prize 
bestowed  on  the  victor  ?    What  is  said  of  it  ?    How  was  the  victor  treated  ? 

How  did  the  Greeks  compute  their  time  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  Pythian  games  ?  With  what  were  the  victors 
crowned  ? 

Wicre  and  how  often  were  the  Nemcan  games  celebrated  ?  With  what 
were  the  victors  cro%mcd  ? 

Wliy  were  the  Isthmian  games  so  called  ?  AVliat  is  said  of  them  1 
What  was  tlie  reward  of  tlie  victors  ? 


858  GREECE. 

Into  what  classes  were  the  inhabitants  of  Athens  divided  ? 

Wlio  were  tlie  citizens  ?  Into  how  many  tribes  were  they  divided  1 
What  is  said  of  the  privilege  of  citizensliip  ? 

What  was  tlie  condition  of  the  sojourners  ? 

Wliat  is  said  of  tlie  slaves  or  servants  ? 

In  what  was  the  supreme  executive  power  vested  ?  What  garlands  did 
they  wear  1  Wliat  was  the  first  of  the  nine  called  f  What  was  his  office  ? 
For  what  crime  was  he  punished  with  death  1 

What  were  the  duties  of  the  second  archon  1  What  did  the  third  archon 
superintend? 

Wliat  were  the  duties  of  six  other  archons  1 

Into  what  three  sorts  were  the  Atlienian  magistrates  divided  ? 

What  rights  had  the  poor  citizens  ?  What  were  the  candidates  for  office 
obliged  to  do  1  To  what  were  the  magistrates  liable  while  in  office  ?  What 
were  they  obliged  to  do  after  their  office  had  expired  7 

Of  whom  were  the  assemblies  of  the  people  composed  1  How  often 
and  wlierc  were  they  held  1 

Of  how  many  citizens  must  the  assembly  consist,  in  order  to  ti'ansact 
business  1     How  was  the  decision  made  ? 

How  often  was  the  senate  elected,  and  of  how  many  did  it  consist  ? 
What  were  the  duties  of  the  senate  1 

From  what  was  the  name  of  Areopagus  taken  f  What  is  said  of  this 
court "?     Of  what  were  the  Areopagites  guardians  ? 

Wliat  is  said  of  the  ostracism  9  Was  it  necessary  that  any  crime  should 
be  alleged  against  the  exile  ?    ^V^lat  is  remarked  of  this  institution  f 


Of  what  two  classes  did  the  inhabitants  of  Sparta  consist  ? 

Into  what  two  classes  were  the  citizens  divided  1 

Which  were  the  more  numerous,  the  slaves  or  the  freemen  ?  What  did 
the  slaves  perfonn  ? 

What  were  the  two  chief  magistrates  ?     Wliat  were  their  duties  ? 

Of  what  did  the  senate  consist  ?  What  was  its  authority  '*  AVho  were 
admitted  to  this  assembly  ? 

What  were  the  Ephori  1     WTiat  was  their  duty  ? 

"Wliat  were  the  two  public  assemblies  of  Sparta  ?  When  was  the 
general  assembly  convened  ?  When  and  for  what  purposes  was  the  lesser 
assembly  held  ? 

Chbonologicai,  Table  of  Gbecian  Histobt. 

When  did  the  first  Olympiad  begin  ? 
When  did  Solon  form  Ms  code  of  laws  1 
Wlien  did  the  Persian  war  begin  ?    The  Peloponnesian  war? 
WTien  did  Alexander  invade  Persia  ? 
Wlicn  was  the  battle  of  Ipsus  ?     Pydna  ? 
Wlien  was  Greece  reduced  to  a  Roman  province  1 
What  are  some  of  the  events  mentioned  in  the  8th  century  B.  C.  ? 
"What  in  the  7th  1    The  6th  1    &c. 

Chronological  Table  of  Geecian  Literatuhe. 

What  statesmen  and  warriors  flourished  in  the  7th  century  B.  C.  ?    Tho 
6th  ■?     &c. 
What  philosophers  in  the  6th  century  B.  C.    The  5th  ?    &c. 
What  poets  and  artists  in  the  7th  century  B.  C.  f     The  6th  ?     &c. 
What  historians  in  the  5th  centurv  B.  C.  ?     The  4th  ?     &c. 


SYRIA  UNDER  THE  SELEUCIDiE.  —  ROME.  359 


SYRIA  UNDER   THE   SELEUCIDJE. 

1.  Who  obtained  possession  of  the  ])nncipal  possessions  of  Alexander 
in  Asia,  after  his  death  ?  Who  defeated  Antigonus "?  How  long  did  the 
kingdom  of  Syria  or  S}TO-Media  last  ?     By  what  kings  was  it  governed  ? 

2.  Wliat  is  said  of  Selcucus  and  his  exploits  ?  What  is  said  of 
Antioeh  ? 

3.  What  was  the  end  of  Seleiicus  ?     By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  reigns  of  Antiochus  Theos  and  Scleuciis  Cil- 
linicus  1 

5.  Who  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  this  race -of  sovereigns  1 
What  is  related  of  his  reign  ? 

6.  By  whom  was  Antiochus  visited  1  What  did  he  undertake  ?  B/ 
whom  and  where  was  lie  defeated  ? 

7.  Wlio  wore  the  next  two  kings  ?  What  was  done  by  the  latter  ? 
What  did  the  Jews  perform  ? 

8.  WTiat  is  said  of  the  succeeding  reigns  ? 

9.  When  did  Seleucus  I.  begin  to  reign  1  Antiochus  the  Great  1  Who 
was  the  last  of  the  Seleucidae  1 


EGYPT  UNDER  THE  PTOLEMIES. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  prosperity  of  Egypt  ?  How  long  did  the  dynasty 
of  the  Ptolemies  last  ? 

2.  Who  was  Ptolemy  Lagus  ?  Wliat  is  said  of  his  history  and  his  abilities  1 

3.  What  important  public  services  did  he  i)erform  ? 

4.  By  whom  was  Ptolemy  Soter  succeeded  ?  What  is  related  of  Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus  ?  What  is  said  of  his  court  ?  What  celebrated  version 
was  made  during  his  reign  ? 

5.  Wliat  is  said  of  Ptolemy  Evergetes  ?  With  what  did  his  reign  com- 
mence ?     What  vow  was  made  by  his  queen  ? 

6.  How  Avas  the  hair  regarded "?  What  is  said  of  that  of  Berenice  ■* 
What  took  place  respecting  it  ? 

7.  By  whom  was  Ptolemy  Evergetes  succeeded  1  For  what  was  his 
reign  distinguished  ?     What  excited  his  resentment  against  the  Jews  ? 

8.  Wliat  decree  did  he  publish  1  What  eft'cct  did  it  produce  1  Wliat 
did  he  then  command  "?     Wliat  was  the  consequence  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  the  first  three  Ptolemies  ?     What  of  the  others  ? 

10.  Why  was  Ptolemy  Soter  so  named?  Ptolemy  Philadelphus? 
Ptolemy  Evergetes  1    Ptolemy  Philopater  ?     Ptolemy  Epiphanes  ?  &c. 

11.  Who  was  the  last  of  the  Ptolemies  ?  Who  was  his  queen  ?  Witli 
whom  is  her  history  connected  1  What  was  the  manner  of  her  death  ? 
What  was  the  condition  of  Egypt  afterwards  ? 

12.  What  is  related  respecting  the  queens  of  the  Ptolemies  ? 

13.  When  did  Ptolemy  Lagus  begin  to  reign?  Who  was  the  last  of 
these  sovereigns  f    When  did  she  die "? 

ROME. 
Section  I. 

1 .  What  state  becomes  the  leading  object  of  attention,  after  the  conquest 
of  Greece  ?  What  is  said  of  its  rise  and  importance  ?  What  is  remarked 
of  its  history  1     What  is  involved  in  its  history  ? 

2.  Wliat  was  its  extent  during  its  early  histoiy  ?  What  change  after- 
wards took  place  1     How  long  did  the  empire  continue  1 


360  ROME. 

3.  What  is  said  of  tlic  cnrly  liistory  of  the  Romans  ?  Wliat  reasons  are 
there  for  supposing  there  must  be  a  mixture  of  fiction  1 

4.  How  is  tlie  length  of  time  comprised  in  the  reigns  of  the  seven  kings 
regarded  ?  What  happened  to  several  of  these  kings  ?  What  was  the 
,averagc  length  of  their  reigns  ? 

5.  What  is  remarked  respecting  the  histories  of  the  early  ages  1  Of 
Ivomulus,  of  the  seven  kings,  and  early  ages  of  the  commonwealth  t 

6.  What  account  do  the  poets  give  of  JEneas  f  How  long  was  the  suc- 
cession continued  in  his  family  ? 

7.  Of  whom  was  Ilhea  Sylvia  the  mother?  Wliat  is  related  of  the 
brothers  ?     What  did  Romulus  do  after  he  had  built  the  city  of  Rome? 

8.  How  is  Romulus  said  to  have  divided  the  people  f  Of  how  many 
members  did  the  senate  consist  ?  From  whom  were  they  chosen  ?  How 
did  he  attach  the  two  classes  to  each  other  ?  What  duties  did  the  patron 
and  client  perform  to  each  other  1 

9.  By  what  persons  was  the  king  attended  ? 

10.  "Wlio  was  the  second  king  of  Rome  ?  Of  what  town  was  he  a  na- 
tive 1     How  is  he  represented  ?     What  did  he  do  ? 

11.  Who  was  the  third  king?  For  what  is  his  reign  memorable? 
What  was  the  issue  of  this  combat  ? 

12.  Who  was  the  fourth  king  ?     Wliat  did  he  do  ? 

13.  Who  was  the  successor  of  Aneuif  Martins  ?     AVhat  was  done  by  him  ? 

14.  What  is  related  of  Sendus  Tullius  ?  What  did  he  establish  ?  By 
what  was  the  census  closed  ? 

15.  What  were  the  characters  of  the  two  daughters  of  Sei-vius  ?  What 
measure  did  he  take  with  regard  to  them,  in  order  to  secure  the  tIu"one  ? 
How  did  he  attempt  to  con-ect  their  defects  ?     What  was  the  issue  ? 

16.  How  did  Tarquin  the  Proud  begin  his  I'eign  ?  "What  was  the  conse- 
quence ?     "Wliat  is  related  of  Sextus  ?     What  course  did  Lucretia  take  ? 

17.  What  measures  were  taken  to  excite  the  indignation  of  the  people 
against  the  Tarquins  ?     "What  was  done  Avith  Tarquin  ? 

Section  H. 

1.  What  government  was  established  instead  of  the  regal  authority  ? 
To  whom  did  the  supreme  power  belong  ?  ^Vhat  two  new  officers  were 
chosen  ?     What  is  said  of  their  power  ?     ^Vlio  were  the  first  consuls  ? 

2.  AVhat  measures  were  taken  by  Tarquin  ?  "What  partisans  had  he  in 
Rome  ?  In  what  plot  were  the  sons  of  Brutus  concerned  ?  What  course 
did  Brutus  take  ?  "What  remark  is  made  by  an  ancient  author  upon  his 
conduct  ? 

3.  "Wliat  took  place  after  the  insun-ection  in  the  city  was  suppressed  ? 
Wliat  notice  was  taken  of  the  death  of  Bnitus  ?  Who  was  the  first  that 
enjoyed  the  reward  of  a  triumph  ? 

4.  "What  course  did  Valerius  adopt  to  regain  his  popularity  ?  What 
was  the  eftcct  of  this  law  ? 

5.  How  long  were  the  Romans  involved  in  hostilities  on  account  of 
Tarquin  ?  "V\iiat  was  the  most  remarkable  of  these  wars  ?  Who  distin- 
guished themselves  in  it  ? 

6.  "Wliat  other  troubles  were  added  to  those  of  war  ?  Wliat  course  did 
the  plebeians  take  ?     "Why  was  the  authority  of  the  consuls  of  no  avail  ? 

7.  "Wliat  new  magistrate  was  now  created  ?  In  what  cases  was  he  ap- 
pointed ?  "What  was  his  authority  ?  "Who  was  chosen  dictator  ?  "Wliat 
was^the  issue  ?     What  other  occasion  was  there  for  a  dictator  ? 

8.'  What  troubles  followed  after  the  return  of  peace  ?  What  course  did 
the  plebeians  adopt  on  an  alarm  of  war  ?  What  was  their  language  1 
What  step  did  they  at  length  take  ? 

9.  "What  was  the  consequence  of  this  procedure  ?    Wliat  was  done  by 


ROME.  361 

Mcncnius  Agrippa  ?  Wliat  was  granted  to  the  plebeians  ?  How  oftoii 
were  tribunes  elected,  and  what  was  their  number?  What  two  other 
magistrates  were  appointed  ? 

10.  ^Vhat  did  a  neglect  of  agriculture  occasion  ■?  In  what  manner  did 
Coriolanus  excite  the  resentment  of  the  people  1  What  was  the  conse- 
quence 1 

1 1 .  What  law  was  proiiose<l  that  caused  dissension  1  Who  demanded 
such  a  division  of  tlie  public  lands  ? 

1 2.  What  was  the  law  which  Volero  caused  to  be  enacted  1  What  was 
{he  effect  of  this  law  ? 

1.3.  What  is  related  of  Cincinnatus  ?    What  did  he  do  after  his  victories  ? 

1 4.  "Wliat  was  the  fact  respecting  the  laws  of  the  Romans  ?  Who  ad- 
ministered justice  ?  What  is  said  of  theii'  proceedings "?  What  measures 
were  taken  to  provide  a  code  1 

15.  For  what  were  the  decemvirs  appointed?  Of  what  statutes  was 
tills  the  origin  ? 

16.  Witli  what  were  the  decemvirs  invested?  How  did  they  govern? 
"^Vliat  caused  a  termination  of  the  office? 

17.  What  was  one  of  the  crimes  of  Appius  Claudius?  What  was  the 
other  ? 

1 8.  What  decree  did  he  pronounce  ?  What  was  done  by  Virginius  ? 
What  was  the  effect  1  Wliat  took  place  respecting  the  decemvirs  and  de- 
cemvirate  ? 

Skction  hi. 

1.  What  were  the  barriers  which  still  separated  the  patricians  and  pic 
bcians  ?     Which  was  repealed  ?     "What  was  the  effect  ? 

2.  What  officers  were  chosen  instead  of  consuls  ?  Did  this  institution 
continue  long? 

.3.  What  was  prevented  liy  the  disorders  of  the  republic  ?  What  officers 
were  appointed  to  remedy  this  neglect  ?  Wliat  was  their  duty  ?  Wliat  ij 
eaid  of  this  otHce  ? 

4.  V/liat  practice  was  introduced  to  avoid  the  evils  arising  from  th« 
people's  refusing  to  enlist  in  the  anny  ?  What  changes  took  place  after 
this  ? 

.').  What  decree  was  made  respecting  Veil  ?     What  followed  ? 

().  How  did  Camillus  proceed  ?     How  was  he  rewarded  ? 

7.  What  is  related  of  the  Gauls?  In  wliat  did  they  engage?  AVhat 
reply  did  Brennus  make  to  the  ambassadors  from  the  senate?  What  did 
Bronnus  do  in  consequence  of  the  ambassador's  having  assisted  the  inhab- 
itants of  Clusium  ? 

8.  What  steps  did  the  Gauls  take  after  the  battle  of  Allia?  Wliat  en- 
terprise did  a  body  of  Gauls  pei-form  ?     Wluit  was  the  issue  ? 

9.  On  what  condition  c'id  the  Gauls  agree  to  quit  the  city  ?  What  was 
dcmc  by  Camillus  ? 

1 0.  What  afterwards  happened  to  Manlius  ? 

1 1 .  Against  whom  did  the  Romans  next  turn  their  arms  ?  How  long 
did  tliis  contest  hvst,  and  how  was  it  carried  on?  What  disgrace  did  tho 
Saninites  cause  the  Romans  to  undergo  1     What  was  the  effect  ? 

1 2.  'What  war  broke  out  during  the  consulship  of  Torquatus  Manlius  1 
W  hat  is  related  respecting  the  son  of  Manlius  ? 

13.  Wliat  course  did  the  Tarentines  take?  With  how  large  an  army 
did  1'vitIius  land  ?  What  was  the  issue  of  the  battle  ?  What  exclamation 
did  l*yrrlius  make  ? 

14.  Wliat  generous  conduct  is  related  of  Fabricius  ?  Wliat  effect  cil 
this  have  on  Fyrrhus  ? 

15.  Wliat  course  did  Fyrrhus  aftcnvards  t;vke  ?  Of  what  did  the  Ro- 
mans now  become  miisters  ? 

31 


362  ROME 


Section  IV. 

1 .  With  what  states  does  the  histoiy  of  Rome  now  become  connected  ? 

2.  By  whom  was  Carthage  founded  ?  What  was  the  gcvemment  ? 
What  was  the  religion  ? 

3.  Wliat  was  tlic  situation  of  Carthage  in  the  time  of  the  Punic  wars  ? 
Wliat  liad  it  under  its  dominion  ?  \Vliat  is  said  of  the  character  of  tho 
Carthaginians  ? 

4.  Did  Cai-thage  produce  many  philosophers  ?  "WTiat  generals  did  it 
produce  ? 

5  By  whom  was  Sicily  colonized  1  What  is  said  of  Syracuse  ?  How 
was  it  governed  ? 

6  What  is  said  of  Gelon  and  his  successors  ■?  By  whom  was  the  regal 
government  restored  1    By  whom  was  Dionysius  the  Younger  dethroned  1 

Section  V. 

1.  "What  were  the  Romans  desirous  of,  after  having  become  masters  of 
all  Lower  Italy  ?  What  conquests  had  they  not  yet  made  1  What  is  said 
of  Carthage  ?     How  are  the  Carthaginians  and  Romans  compared  ? 

2.  How  was  the  first  Pimic  war  brought  on  ?  Wh&t  was  the  object  of 
both  parties  ? 

3.  "Wliat  course  did  the  Romans  take?  What  was  their  success? 
What  part  did  the  Syracusans  act  ? 

4.  Wliat  further  advantages  did  the  Romans  gain  ?  What  course  was 
adopted  by  Regnlus  1  What  was  the  issue  1  WTiat  is  ftu-ther  related  of 
Kegulus  1 

5.  What  was  the  final  issue  of  the  war?  To  what  terms  did  the  Car- 
thaginians agree  ?  Wliat  was  the  state  of  Sicily  and  SjTacuse  ?  WTiat 
conquest  did  the  Romans  next  make  ? 

6.  How  long  did  peace  last?  How  long  was  it  since  the  temple  of 
Janus  had  been  shut  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  Hamilcar  ?  What  of  Hannibal  ?  How  did  Hannibal 
commence  the  second  Punic  war  ? 

8.  What  design  did  Hannibal  now  fonn  and  execute  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  victory  of  Cannse,  and  of  the  losses  of  the  Romans  ? 

9.  Por  what  has  Hannibal  been  censured  ? 

10.  By  whose  counsels  were  the  Romans  now  guided?  Wliat  were 
Pabius  and  Marcellus  styled  ?  What  was  the  subsequent  fortune  of 
Hannibal  ? 

11.  What  is  related  respecting  Syracuse?  What  did  it  now  become? 
What  was  the  fate  of  the  Carthaginians  under  Asdmbal  ? 

12.  Wliat  was  done  by  Scipio  the  Younger?  What  course  did  the 
Carthaginians  adopt  ?  "VVhat  engagement  followed  ?  What  were  the  con- 
ditions of  peace  ?     How  long  did  the  war  continue  ? 

13.  Where  did  Hannibal  pass  the  rest  of  his  life  ?  With  whom  did  h« 
hold  friendly  conversations  ?  What  reply  did  he  make  to  the  question, 
•i'S'hom  he  thought  the  greatest  general  ? 

14.  How  did  the  first  Macedonian  war  temiinate  ?  What  victory  did 
the  Roman  anny  under  Scipio  Asiaticus  gain  ?  How  did  the  second 
Macedonian  war  terminate  ? 

1 5.  WTiat  was  the  pretext  with  the  Romans  for  commencing  the  third 
Punic  war  ?     What  is  stated  of  Porcius  Cato  ? 

16.  What  was  offered  on  the  part  of  the  Carthaginians  ?  What  did  the 
Romans  require  of  them  ?     How  was  the  demand  received  ? 

17.  What  was  the  duration  and  issue  of  the  siege  ?  What  is  related  re- 
specting the  destruction  of  tlie  city  ? 

18.  By  what  other  event  was  the  same  year  signalized?  What  other 
conquest  did  the  Romans  soon  after  make  ? 


HOME. 

Section  VI. 

1 .  How  had  the  Romans  been  hitlicrto  characterized  ?  What  changes 
Were  now  introduced  1 

2.  Wliat  was  now  the  condition  of  Eome  1  Wliat  took  place  after  tlicro 
ceased  to  he  danger  from  a  foreign  enemy  1 

.3.  AVliat  is  related  of  Tiberius  and  Cains  Gracchus  1  What  did  Ti- 
iierius  attempt "?     What  was  the  issue  ? 

4.  What  is  related  of  his  brother  Caius  1 

.').  How  did  Jugurtha  attempt  to  obtain  the  crown  of  Numidia?  What 
were  his  furtlicr  proceedings  1 

C.  Who  commanded  the  Roman  army  in  the  war  against  Juguilha  ■? 
"Uliat  was  the  issue  f     Wliat  victory  did  Marius  afterwards  gain  ■? 

7.  Wliat  gave  rise  to  the  Social  war  ?  How  many  men  were  destroyed 
in  it  ?     How  was  it  ended  ? 

8.  What  design  did  Mithridates  fonn  1  How  did  he  begin  the  Mithri- 
datie  war  ?     What  Romans  bore  a  distinguished  part  in  it  ? 

9.  What  is  related  respecting  Sylla  ?     What  of  his  rival  Marius  ? 

10.  Wliat  course  did  Sylla  take'?  "Wliat  became  of  Mimus  ?  What 
was  performed  by  Cinna  ?     'Wliat  is  further  related  of  Maiius  and  Cinna  ? 

1 1 .  What  was  done  by  Sylla  after  returning  from  his  campaign  ?  How 
did  he  proceed  after  he  had  wreaked  liis  vengeance  on  his  enemies  1  What 
epitaph  did  he  write  for  himself?  How  many  were  slain  in  the  civil  war 
between  Sylla  and  Marius  ? 

12.  Wliat  took  place  after  the  death  of  Sylla  ?  By  whom  was  the  party 
of  Marius  supported '{ 

13.  By  what  war  was  Rome  next  harassed  ?    What  was  its  termination  ? 

14.  What  took  place  a  few  years  after  the  defeat  of  Spartacus  ?  What 
plan  was  concerted  ? 

1 5.  By  whom  was  this  conspiracy  detected  and  crushed  ?  How  was  it 
ended  ? 

Section  VII. 

1 .  Why  was  Pompey  sumamed  the  Great  1  What  did  he  perform  1 
How  was  he  received  on  returning  to  Rome  ? 

2.  Who  were  now  the  most  considerable  men  in  Rome?  What  is 
related  of  Julius  Caisar?  What  was  done  by  Pompey,  Crassus,  and 
Caesar  ? 

3.  How  did  they  distribute  the  provinces  1  What  was  the  com-sc  of 
Crassus  ?     WTiat  took  place  with  regard  to  Coesar  and  Pompey  "i 

4.  "Wliat  course  did  CiEsar  take  after  the  di^'ision  of  the  provinces  ■? 
\^^lat  is  said  of  his  career  ?  How  did  he  continue  to  give  a  color  of  jus- 
tice and  humanity  to  his  operations  '?     "Wliat  did  he  acquire  1 

5.  What  is  related  of  Pompey  ?  Wliat  took  place  when  the  tciTn  of 
Cajsar's  government  was  about  to  expire  ?  What  then  followed  ?  Who 
were  friends  of  Pompey  ?     Who  were  on  the  side  of  Cajsar  ? 

(■).  What  preparations  had  Pompey  made  ?  What  reply  did  he  make 
when  asked  witli  what  troops  he  expected  to  oppose  Cajsar  Y 

7.  "What  course  did  Caesar  adopt '?  What  river  formed  the  limits  of  his 
command  1     "What  did  he  do  on  aniving  at  tlie  banks  of  this  river  ? 

8.  What  effect  did  tiic  news  of  this  movement  have  at  Rome  ?  Wliat 
course  did  Pompey  adopt  f     liy  whom  was  he  followed  1 

9.  "What  success  did  Caisar  meet  witli  ?  Por  what  purpose  did  he  say 
that  he  had  entered  Italy  ?     What  was  his  next  course  ? 

10.  What  part  did  the  monarchs  of  the  East  take?  By  whom  was 
Pompey  joined  1 

1 1 .  What  were  Caesar's  movements  after  staying  eleven  days  at  Rome  f 
What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  the  contest  ? 


364  ROME. 

12.  What  force  had  each  of  the  parties  ?  What  was  the  feeling  on  th« 
side  of  Pompey  ?     What  was  the  issue  of  the  engagement  1 

13.  What  acts  of  clemency  did  Ccesar  perform  1  What  is"  related  of 
him  on  viewing  the  field  of  battle  ? 

14.  What  is  related  of  the  course  and  fate  of  Pompey  1  What  inscrip 
tion  was  placed  over  his  ashes  1  What  anecdote  is  related  i-especting 
Ca3sar "? 

15.  By  whom  was  the  throne  of  Egy]jt  now  possessed  f  "What  is  men 
tioned  respecting  Cleopatra  1  Wliat  war  ensued  ?  What  called  Caesar 
away  from  Egypt  ?  How  did  Caesar  express  the  rapidity  of  his  victory 
over  Pharnaces  ■? 

16.  AVhat  was  Caesar's  next  proceeding?  Over  whom  did  he  gain  a 
victory  at  Thapsus  in  Africa  ?     What  is  related  of  Cato  ? 

17.  What  triumph  did  Ceesar  celebrate  on  returning  to  Eome  ?  What 
else  did  he  do  to  please  the  ai-my  and  people  1  Wliat  effect  did  these  acta 
produce  on  the  multitude  and  senate  ? 

18.  Wliat  expedition  was  he  next  obliged  to  undertake?  What  was 
the  issue  ? 

19.  How  did  he  use  his  power  after  having  subdued  all  who  opposed  his 
usurpation  ?  What  did  he  say  respecting  his  designs  ?  How  did  he  pro- 
ceed, and  what  did  he  perform  ? 

20.  What  rumor  was  circulated  respecting  Caesar's  designs  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  feelings  of  the  people  ?  What  design  was  formed  against  him  ? 
What  is  said  of  Brutus  and  of  Cassius  ?^ 

2 1 .  What  time  did  the  conspirators  fix  upon  for  executing  their  designs  ? 
How  did  he  defend  liimself,  and  wliat  was  the  result  ?  What  particulars 
are  mentioned  respecting  his  age  and  career  ? 

22.  What  threefold  character  did  Csesar  unite  ?  Wliat  is  said  of  his 
claims  to  regard  ? 

23.  What  is  remarked  of  his  caieer  and  disposition?  Wliat  apology 
has  been  made  for  him  ?     Wliat  Roman  patriots  lived  in  the  same  age  ? 

24.  What  remark  did  he  make  in  passing  a  village  among  the  Alps  ? 
What  sentiment  of  Euripides  did  he  often  repeat  ? 

25.  What  is  said  of  his  military  character,  and  his  jjopularity  with  his 
troops  ?     How  are  Alexander  and  Caesar  compared  ? 

26.  What  summaiy  does  Milllcr  give  of  Ciesar's  exploits  ?. 

27.  How  did  the  murder  of  Caesar  aflect  the  Roman  people  ?  Wliat 
was  done  by  Mark  Antony,  and  what  was  the  effect  ? 

28.  What  is  related  of  Mark  Antony,  Lepidus,  and  Octavius  ? 

29.  What  did  they  stipulate  ?  Wlio  were  some  of  the  persons  consigned 
to  death  ?  What  is  related  respecting  the  death  of  Cicero  ?  What  per- 
sons were  sacrificed  in  the  proscription  ? 

30.  What  is  related  of  Bmtus  and  Cassius  ?  By  whom  were  they  pur- 
Bued  ?     What  was  the  issue  ?    What  course  did  Brutus  and  Cassius  take  ? 

31.  What  is  mentioned  respecting  the  triumvirs  ?  What  is  related  of 
Antony  and  Cleopatra  ? 

32.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  battle  of  Actium  ?  What  course  did 
Antony  and  Cleopatra  take  ? 

Section  VIII. 

1 .  What  is  said  of  the  battle  of  Actium  ?  What  is  said  of  Augustus  ? 
Wliat  did  Agrippa,  and  what  did  Maecenas  advise  him  to  do  ? 

2.  To  which  did  Augustus  give  the  preference  ?     How  did  he  proceed  ? 

3.  Wliat  is  said  of  his  reputation  ?  What  of  his  reign,  and  what  did  Lo 
effect  ? 

4.  In  what  year  of  his  age,  and  after  how  long  a  reign,  did  he  die  ? 
Wliat  is  said  of  him  ? 


ROME.  365 

5.  Of  what  were  Augustus  and  Moecenas  patrons  1  What  is  said  of 
the  Aupustrin  aye  1 

6.  By  what  is  the  reign  of  Augustus  rendered  memorable  ?  Wlicn  did 
the  hirth  of  our  Saviour  take  phvce  i     When  did  he  suffer  crucifixion  ? 

7.  By  wliom  was  Augustus  succeeded  i  How  did  he  commence  his 
reign  ?     How  did  he  afterwards  proceed  ? 

8.  How  did  the  successes  of  Gei'manicus  affect  Tiberius  ?  Whom  did 
he  tlien  take  into  his  confidence  t  Wliat  did  Scjanus  pei'suadc  him  to  do  ? 
What  finally  happened  to  Sejanus  and  Tiberius  1 

9.  \Vliom  did  Tiberius  adopt  for  his  heir  and  successor?  Wliat  is  re- 
lated of  him  and  liis  proceedings  ?     What  does  Seneca  say  of  him  ? 

10.  What  took  place  after  the  death  of  Caligula"?  Who  was  raised  to 
the  throne  ?     What  is  said  of  him  ? 

1 1 .  What  enterprise  did  he  undertake  ?  What  is  said  of  Caractacus  ? 
What  exclamation  did  he  make  on  being  led  through  the  streets  of  Rome  ? 

12.  What  is  related  of  Messalina  ?     What  of  Agrijjpina  1 

13.  By  whom  was  Nero  educated  ?  How  did  he  commence  his  reign  ? 
What  is  said  of  his  character  ?  WTio  were  some  of  the  victims  of  his 
cruelty  ? 

14.  Why  did  he  cause  Rome  to  be  set  on  fire  ?  How  did  he  attempt 
to  divert  the  public  odium  from  himself  ? 

15.  What  is  said  of  Nero  1  By  whom  was  the  conspiracy  against  liim 
headed  1  What  crimes  did  Galba  enumerate  ?  What  took  place  respect- 
ing liim  1 

16.  Who  was  declared  emperor  after  the  death  of  Nero  ?  What  is  said 
of  Gralba  •  Whom  did  he  adopt  for  his  successor,  and  what  was  the  con- 
sequence ■?     What  does  Tacitus  say  of  him  "> 

17.  Who  was  then  proclaimed  emperor  ?  What  afterwards  took  place  ? 
What  course  did  Vitellius  take  on  being  proclaimed  emperor  ?  What 
afterwards  took  place  ? 

18.  How  was  Vespasian  received  after  being  declared  emperor  ?  What 
is  said  of  him  and  his  acts  ? 

19.  For  what  is  his  reign  memorable  ?  What  v/as  done  to  Jerusalem  ? 
How  many  perished,  and  how  many  were  taken  prisoners  ?  Wliat  be- 
came of  the  survivors  ? 

20.  By  whom  was  Vespasian  succeeded  1  "What  is  related  of  Titus  ■? 
What  event  happened  during  his  reign  ?     By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1 

21.  Wliat  is  said  of  Domitian,  his  character  and  habits  ? 

22.  Wliat  was  the  manner  of  Domitian's  death  1  By  what  was  his  reign 
signalized  ? 

23.  Who  was  the  last  and  who  the  first  of  the  twelve  Csesars  ? 

Section  IX. 

1.  Who  succeeded  Domitian?  What  is  said  of  Nerva?  Whom  did 
he  adopt  for  his  successor  ? 

2.  "NVhat  is  said  of  Trajan  ?  For  what  lisis  he  been  commended  ?  AAHiat 
is  said  of  him  as  a  general  ?  What  charge  did  he  give  to  the  pretorian 
prefect  on  presenting  the  sword  ?  What  surname  did  the  senate  confer 
upon  him,  and  how  were  they  accustomed  to  hail  every  new  emperor  ? 

3.  What  was  the  extent  of  tlic  empire  in  tlic  reign  of  Trajan  ?  Wliat 
conquests  did  he  make  ?     Hovv  were  his  victories  commemorated  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  him  witli  respect  to  literature  ?  What  is  remarked 
of  his  death  ?     By  what  was  his  character  tarnished  ? 

5.  By  whom  was  Trajan  succeeded  ?  What  is  said  of  Adrian  ?  To 
what  did  he  devote  himself?  What  expedition  did  he  undertake  ?  What 
was  done  by  him  in  Britain  ? 

6.  "Wliat  did  he  do  ros(iccting  Jerusalem  ?     What  course  did  the  Jews 

31  * 


366  ROME. 

take?    Wliat  destruction  was  made  by  the  emperor's  army?    Whom  did 
Adrian  adopt  for  Ids  successor  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  Titus  Antoninus  and  bis  reig-n  1  What  was  his 
favorite  maxim '! 

8.  Who  succeeded  Aritoninus  Pius  1  What  is  said  of  him  1  To  Avhat 
was  he  attached  ^ 

9.  Did  tlio  Antonines  permit  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  ?  What 
was  presented  to  the  foraier  of  tlie  two  i  Wliat  luippened  to  the  army 
under  the  latter  ? 

10.  What  are  the  last  five  emperors  styled  ?  What  took  place  after  this 
period  1 

Section  X. 

1.  By  whom  was  Aurelius  succeeded?  What  is  said  of  Commodus  ? 
By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?     What  was  his  fate  ? 

2.  What  was  now  done  with  the  empire  ?  Who  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror instead  of  Didius  Julianus  ?  "Wlio  were  his  competitors  ?  What  is 
said  of  ISevems  ?     What  did  he  do  in  Britain  ? 

3.  To  whom  did  Severus  leave  the  empire  ?  W^hat  is  related  of  them  ? 
Who  succeeded  Macrinus  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  Hcliog;abalus  ?     What  was  his  fate  ? 

5.  By  whom  was  Heliogabalus  succeeded  ?  What  is  said  of  Alexander 
Sevenis  ?  By  whom  was  he  murdered  and  succeeded  ?  What  is  said  of 
Maximin  ? 

6.  How  many  reigns  were  there  between  Alexander  Severus  and  Diocle- 
tian ?    What  was  the  length  of  this  period  ?    What  is  said  of  these  reigns  ? 

7.  By  whom  was  Valerian  taken  prisoner?     How  was  he  treated  ? 

8.  What  is  said  of  tlie  reign  of  Anrelian  ?  For  what  was  he  distin- 
guished ?  AYhat  exploits  did  he  pertbrm  ?  X^liat  took  jdace  on  his  return 
to  Kome  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  Diocletian  ?  What  did  he  do  after  he  had  reigned 
awhile  ?     How  was  the  empire  divided  ? 

10.  What  happened  during  this  i-eign  ?  What  is  said  of  tliis  perse- 
cution ? 

11.  WTiat  did  Diocletian  experience  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign'' 
What  course  did  he  take  ?     What  did  he  say  of  his  situation  ? 

Section  XI. 

1.  Wliere  did  Constantius  die?  Wlio  succeeded  him?  Wliat  extra- 
ordinary circnmstance  is  related  by  historians  ? 

2.  What  did  Constantino  become  ?  To  what  did  he  put  an  end  ?  "VVhaJ 
is  remarked  of  his  reign  ? 

3.  What  important  event  took  place  during  his  reign  ?  '^AHiat  is  thought 
to  have  been  the  effect  of  this  measui-e  ?  What  is  said  of  the  character  of 
Constantine  ? 

4.  How  did  Constantine  divide  the  empire  ?  Wlio  became  sole  em- 
peror?    'V\Tiat  is  said  of  the  reign  of  Constantius  ? 

5.  By  whom  was  Constantius  succeeded?  What  is  said  of  him?  Wliat 
did  he  'undertake  to  do,  and  what  was  the  issue  ?     How  was  he  killed  ? 

6.  By  whom  was  Julian  succeeded  ?  Wiio  was  next  chosen  emperor  ? 
What  course  did  he  adopt  ?     Vfhat  people  settled  in  Thrace  ? 

7.  Who  succeeded  Valentinian  ?  Who  became  solo  emperor  after  the 
death  of  Gratian  and  Valentinian  II.  ?  By  what  was  his  reign  signalized  ? 
"\^1iat  is  said  of  him  ?     By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ? 

8.  What  happened  through  the  weakness  of  the  emperors  ?  What  waa 
done  by  the  Goths  ?  "Wlio  defeated  Alaric  ?  What  did  Alari<i  afterwai'ds 
perform  ?     To  what  was  the  city  reduced  ? 


ROME.  36? 

9.  What  took  place  after  the  ravages  of  famine?  Wliat  was  the  ad- 
dress of  Alario  to  his  army  ?     Wliat  is  said  of  the  devastation  1 

10.  Wliat  did  the  (ioths  do  after  the  death  of  Alaric  ? 

11.  "What  took  ])hicc  after  the  sackiiiji'  of  I\ome  hy  Alaric?  "What  de- 
feat did  Attila  suiter  >     Wliat  did  he  do  afienvards  ? 

12.  What  was  the  occasion  of  the  invasion  of  Genseric  ?  What  was 
peiformcd  I)y  him  ? 

l.'l.  What  took  place  with  regard  to  the  Western  Empire  after  the  death 
of  Valeiitiiiiaii  III.  '. 

1 4.  What  is  said  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  empire  ? 

Section  XII. 

1 .  How  long  did  the  kingdom  of  the  Heruli  continue  ?  By  whom  was 
it  terminated  ?  Wlicrc  was  the  residence  of  Theodoric  ?  "VVTio  defeated 
Theodotus  ?     What  afterwards  took  place  ? 

2.  "What  was  done  hy  Narses  after  he  was  recalled  hy  Justin  ?  "What 
was  done  liy  Aihoin  ?  How  long  did  the  kingdom  of  the  Lomhards  last  ? 
V>y  whom  was  it  overthrown  ?  What  is  said  of  the  period  from  Theo- 
dosius  to  the  estalilishmcnt  of  the  Lomhards  in  Italy  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  Goths  ?  Why  were  the  Ostrogoths  and  "Visigoths 
so  called  ?     Who  were  the  Heruli  and  Lombards  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  p]astern  Empire  ? 

.5.  When  was  this  empire  in  the  meridian  of  its  glory  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  code  of  Justinian  ? 

G.  What  was  jierformed  by  Belisarius  and  Narses?  What  church  was 
built  by  Justinian  ?     What  is  remarked  of  him  and  his  successors  ? 

7.  "VVhat  happened  after  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  empire  ?  How  did 
this  controversy  terminate  ? 

8.  What  was  done  by  the  Crusaders  in  1204  ?  How  long  did  their  domin- 
ion continue  ?    Wliat  was  the  seat  of  the  Greek  emperors  during  this  time  ? 

9.  When  and  by  whom  was  an  end  put  to  the  Eastern  Empire  ? 

Section  XIII.  —  Roman  Antiquities. 

2-  To  whom  has  the  whole  structure  of  the  Roman  constitution  under 
the  monarchy  been  attributed  ?     What  was  doubtless  tnie  ? 

.3.  What  three  divisions  of  the  people  are  attributed  to  Romulus  ?  "WTio 
added  a  fourth  tribe  ?     How  were  the  tribes  named  ? 

4.  What  other  division  was  made  by  Servius  ?  How  were  the  classes 
formed  ?     How  many  iX'Uturies  were  there  ? 

.').  What  order  was  added  to  those  of  patricians  and  plebeians  ?  Of 
whom  were  the  knights  composed  ? 

6.  Who  were  the  nobilcs?  The  homines  novi?  The  ignohilcs?  The 
ingenui  ?     The  liberti  or  Uberlini  ? 

7.  Of  whom  did  the  Roman  citizens  consist  ? 

8.  Who  were  the  skives  ?  How  were  they  considered  ?  How  did  men 
become  slaves  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  the  kings  ?  "What  could  they  not  do  of  themselves  ? 
"Wliat  were  their  badges  ?  In  what  did  they  sit,  and  by  whom  wtre  they 
attended  ? 

10.  Of  how  many  members  did  the  senate  consist?  How  were  they 
chosen  ?  How  often  did  they  meet  ?  "What  was  a  setiatiis  consultum  ? 
Why  were  the  senators  styled  patrcs  ?  Why  did  the  patricians  derive  their 
name  from  tiicm  ? 

11.  Why  were  the  magistrates  previous  to  their  election  styled  candidali  ? 

12.  How  were  the  Roman  magistrates  divided  ?  ^AHio  were  the  ordinary 
magistrates  ?     The  extraordinary  ?     The  provincial  ? 


368  ROME. 

13.  What  is  said  of  the  consuls?  What  was  done  respecting  them  in 
dangerous  conjunctures  1    What  age  was  reqtiisitc  in  order  to  be  a  consul  1 

14.  What  is  said  of  the  prelor  ?     'Wliat  were  his  duties  1 

15.  What  is  said  of  tlie  office  of  censor?  How  many  censors  were 
there,  and  what  were  their  duties  ? 

1 6.  For  what  purpose  was  the  office  of  the  tribunes  instituted  1 

17.  "WHiat  were  the  duties  of  ediks?     What  two  kinds  were  there? 

18.  What  duties  did  the  queslors  perform  ?  'Wliat  wei'e  the  duties  of 
Uie  military  qucstors  ?     The  provincial  questors  ? 

19.  Wniat  were  the  con; i'fi'a?  Uow  many  kinds  were  there  ?  For  what 
purj^ose  were  the  comitia  summoned  ? 

20.  Of  what  did  the  comitia  curiata  consist? 

21.  What  is  said  of  the  comitia  centuriata?  What  was  done  by  them  ? 
Whci  e  did  they  meet  ? 

22.  Wliat  were  the  comitia  tributa  ?    For  what  were  they  held  ? 

23.  How  long  did  the  comitia  continue  to  be  assembled  1  Who  discon- 
tinued them  ? 

24.  What  is  said  of  the  priests  or  ministers  of  religion  ?  What  priests 
were  common  to  all  the  gods  ? 

25.  What  is  said  of  the  pontijices?     Of  the  pontifex  maximvs? 

26.  What  is  said  of  the  augurs  ?  What  of  their  office  ?  In  what  five 
ways  did  they  divine  1 

27.  Who  were  tlic  haruspices?  From  what  did  they  derive  their 
omens  ? 

28.  Who  were  the  quindecimviri?  What  were  the  Sibylline  hooks  sup 
posed  to  contain  ? 

29.  Who  were  the  septemviri? 

30.  "Wliat  were  the  priests  of  particular  deities  called?  Who  were 
the  chief  of  them  ? 

31.  Where  did  the  Eomans  worship  their  gods?  Of  what  did  their 
worship  consist  ? 

32.  y^haX  festivals  were  there  among  the  Eomans?  Which  were  the 
most  celebrated  ? 

33.  What  games  or  s7iO!cs  were  exhibited  ? 

34.  Who  were  the  gladiators  ?  When  were  these  combats  introduced  ? 
Of  whom  were  the  combatants  composed  ?  What  took  place  in  these 
exhibitions  ?  What  is  related  of  the  spectacles  exhibited  after  the  triumph 
of  Trajan  over  the  Dacians  ? 

35.  What  was  a  triumph  ?  On  whom  was  the  honor  bestowed  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  procession  ?     Of  whom  was  it  composed  ? 

3G.  "What  were  the  most  distinguished  parts  of  the  Roman  dress? 
"Wliat  was  the  toga  ?  By  whom  was  the  toga  virilis  assumed  ?  "What 
was  the  tunica  ? 

37.  What  was  the  principal  meal  among  the  Romans  ?  On  what  did 
the  early  Romans  chiefly  live  ?  How  was  it  afterwards  ?  How  did  they 
place  themselves  at  their  meals  ?     What  was  their  ordinary  diink. 

38.  "VVTiat  was  the  Forwn  ?    By  what  was  it  siiiTounded"? 

39.  What  was  the  Campus  Martins  ?    By  what  was  it  adorned  ? 


Chronological  Table  of  Roman  History.  —  No.  1. 

Who  was  the  first  king  of  Rome  ?  "WTio  the  last  ?  "When  did  Romulus 
found  Rome  ?  "When  was  the  regal  government  abolished  ?  "What  was 
done  by  Romulus  ?     Numa  ?     &c. 

When  did  the  contests  bet^veen  the  patricians  and  plebeians  begin? 
When  was  Rome  burnt  by  the  Gauls  ?  When  did  the  first  Punic  Wat 
begin  ?     The  second  ?     The  third  ?     "What  were  Hannibal's  victories  ■» 


THE  ARABS  OR  SARACENS.  369 

Wlien  did  the  Mithridatic  war  begin  ?     The  civil  war  between  Marias 
and  Sylla  ?     Between  C:csar  and  rompcy  ?     Battle  of  Actium  ? 
What  events  took  plaec  in  the  4th  eentury  B.  C.  ?     The  3d  ?     &c. 

Chronological  Table  of  Roman  History.  —  No.  2. 

"UHio  was  the  first  emperor  of  Rome? 

Wlio  tJie  last  sole  emperor  of  the  AVest  and  East?  Who  the  last  of 
the  Western  Empire  1 

When  did  Au^-ustus  begin  to  reign  ?  Trajan  ?  Diocletian  ?  Constan- 
tinc  the  (jrcat?     Who  was  the  last  of  the  twelve  Caesars  ? 

When  was  the  empire  divided  into  Western  and  Eastern? 

When  did  the  Western  Empire  terminate  ? 

What  is  said  of  Augustus  or  his  reign  ?     Tiberius  ?     &e. 


Chronological  Table  of  Roman  Literature. 

"Wliat  public  men  flourished  in  the  5th  century  B.  C?  In  the  4th? 
&c. 

What  poets  flourished  in  the  2d  century  B.  C.  In  the  1st?  What 
ones  in  the  1st  century  A.  D.  ?     The  2d  ? 

What  historians  in  tlie  1st  century  B.  C.  ?     In  the  1st  A.  D.? 

What  philosophers,  orators,  &c.,  in  the  1st  century  B.C.?  In  the  let 
A.  D.? 

What  Jews  in  the  5th  century  B.  C.  ?     In  the  1st  A.  D.  ? 

Wliat  Christians  in  the  1st  century  A.  D.  ?     The  2d  ?     &c. 


THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

1.  What  do  the  Middle  Ages  comprise?  Wliat  was  the  state  of  En- 
rope  during  these  centuries  ? 

2.  When  did  the  migration  of  the  Goths,  Vandals,  Huns,  &c.,  take 
place  ?  Of  what  did  they  possess  themselves  ?  What  followed  ?  At 
what  time  did  literature  begin  to  decline?  When  was  the  darkest 
period  ? 

3.  What  is  related  respecting  these  times  ?  To  what  was  the  learaing 
wliich  existed  confined  ? 

4.  What  was  the  state  of  morals  and  of  Christianity  ?  Wliat  was  the 
political  state  of  Europe  ? 

5.  What  methods  of  discovering  guilt  or  innocence  were  used? 

6.  Wliat  was  the  most  considerable  empire  that  existed  in  Europe 
durhig  the  Middle  Ages  ?  What  impostor  appeared  in  these  ages  ? 
At  wliat  period  did  the  Saracens  cultivate  literature  ? 

7  What  arc  some  of  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  which  char 
acT-d  -izcd  these  ages  ? 

THE  ARABS  OR  SARACENS. 

1.  Wliat  is  said  of  the  Arabians  before  the  time  of  Mahomet? 

2.  What  is  related  of  tlie  Saracens? 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Arabia?  What 
kind  of  Christianity  was  it  ? 

4.  What  is  said' of  Mahomet?  How  was  the  Kcran  formed?  On 
what  did  Mahomet  rely  as  proofs  of  his  inspiration? 

5.  Wliat  were  his  two  leading  doctrines  ?  "What  other  persons  did 
he  admit  to  have  been  inspired?  What  did  he  adopt  and  retain?  To 
what  did  he  chiefly  owe  his  success  ? 


370  THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 

6.  How  did  he  propagate  his  religion,  and  stimulate  his  followers.  1 
What  was  inculcated  as  a  fundamental  doctrine  ?  What  do  the  Saracens 
term  their  religion"? 

7.  How  did  Mahomet  at  first  succeed ?     Who  were  his  first  converts'? 

8.  Wliat  was  he  compelled  to  do  1  Wliat  is  said  of  his  Flight  or  He- 
giru?     How  did  he  enter  Medina?     What  was  his  subsequent  career? 

9.  What  is  said  in  favor  of  Mahomet?  What  further  is  said  of  his 
character  ? 

10.  By  whom  was  Mahomet  succeeded?  What  is  the  meaning  of 
caliph?     What  is  related  of  Abu-bckir?     Who  was  his  successor? 

11.  'Wliat  conquests  did  Omar  make? 

12.  Wliat  answer  did  Omar  give,  when  requested  to  spare  the  Alex- 
andrian library  ?     How  many  volumes  did  the  library  contain  ? 

13.  What  did  Omar  perform  in  the  space  of  ten  years  ?  By  whom  was 
ho  succeeded  ?  Who  was  elected  after  the  death  of  Othman  ?  What  is 
said  of  him  ? 

14.  What  is  related  of  the  progress  and  extent  of  the  Saracen  empire  ? 

15.  For  what  is  the  reign  of  Ali  remarkable?  What  is  said  of  the 
partisans^f  Ali  ?     What  of  the  Sunnites  ?     Who  belong  to  each  ? 

16.  To  what  place  did  Ali  remove  the  seat  of  the  sovereigns  ?  To 
what  place  was  it  afterwards  removed?  Wliat  caliphate  ranked  next 
to  that  of  Bagdad  ?     What  is  related  of  Walid  ? 

17.  What  was  the  first  race  of  the  caliphs  styled?  The  second?  What 
Is  related  of  Almansor  ? 

18.  What  is  said  of  the  reign  of  Haroun  al  Raschid  ?  By  what  did  he 
render  himself  illustrious  ?  What  are  to  be  refeiTcd  to  these  times  ? 
What  sciences  were  cultivated  ?  What  is  said  of  the  successors  of 
Haroun  al  Raschid  ? 

19.  What  took  place  with  respect  to  Arabia  after  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  removed  to  Bagdad  ? 

20.  What  is  remarked  of  the  Saracens  and  their  states  ?  How  did 
Spain,  Egypt,  Morocco,  and  India  regard  the  caliph  of  Bagdad  ? 

21.  How  many  caliphs  did  the  house  of  Abbas  furnish?  How  long 
did  Bagdad  continue  the  seat  of  empire  ?  When  and  by  whom  was  the 
caliphate  abolished  ? 

22.  What  is  said  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Mahomet?  "Wliat 
were  their  manners  ?  How  did  they  proceed  after  their  power  was  es- 
tablished? 

23.  What  is  said  of  the  power  of  the  caliphs  ?  Was  there  any  privi- 
leged order  ?  By  what  were  they  bound  to  observe  the  duties  of  human- 
ity and  justice  ?    What  office  did  theh-s  resemble  ? 


THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 

1.  Wliat  was  the  origin  of  the  Feudal  System?  By  what  sovereigns 
was  it  adopted  ? 

2.  How  did  the  northern  barbarians  dispose  of  their  conquered  lands  ? 
Wlio  had  the  largest  portion?  What  were  those  who  received  lands 
bound  to  render  ? 

3.  How  did  the  courtiers  manage  ?    How  is  a  feudal  kingdom  described  ? 

4.  Wliat  is  said  of  the  barons  or  lords  ? 

5.  What  was  the  fundamental  principle  of  this  system?  What  were 
the  grantor,  and  those  to  whom  he  made  grants,  styled  ?  How  was  tha 
service  esteemed  ? 

6.  Wliat  was  the  condition  of  the  great  mass  of  the  people? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  feudal  government  ?  What  did  a  kingdom  r« 
gemble  ? 


THE   CRUSADES.  871 

8.  \Vliat  did  a  kingdom  often  exhibit?     In  what  period  was  Europe 
in  a  state  of  anarchy  and  war  ? 

9.  What   were   tlic   jjriiieipal  causes  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Feudal 
System ?     In  what  countries  do  relics  of  it  still  exist? 


THE  CRUSADES. 

I .  AVhat  were  the  Crusades  ?  What  nations  enfjaffed  in  them  ?  W  hat 
is  related  of  the  Saracens?  What  of  the  Turks?  What  is  said  of  the 
danijers  of  pilgrimage? 

2^  Wliat  is  related  of  Peter  the  Hermit  ? 

;{.  What  course  did  Pope  Urban  II.  take?  How  was  the  ])roject 
(ijjcncd  ?  Why  were  these  expeditions  tenned  Crusades?  AVliat  was 
granted  to  all  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  service  ? 

4.  AVhat  description  of  {icrsons  took  the  cross?  What  were  their 
inducements?  What  was  done  by  Peter  the  Hermit?  By  what  was 
Peter's  army  followed  ?     A\1iat  Avas  their  fate  ? 

.5.  AVhat  is  said  of  the  other  part  of  the  expedition  ?  AVho,  were  the 
commanders  ?     To  what  did  the  force  amount  ? 

G.  What  did  they  accomplish  ?     What  was  the  fortune  of  Godfrey  ? 

7.  IIow  did  the  conquerors  divide  Sp'ia  and  Palestine?  Wliat  after- 
wards took  place  ?     What  was  the  fate  of  the  army  under  Hugh  ? 

8.  By  whom  was  the  second  einisade  preached,  and  who  engaged  in  it  ? 
What  was  the  issue  ? 

9.  What  is  related  of  Saladin? 

10.  Who  united  in  the  third  crusade?  Wliat  happened  to  Frederick? 
What  is  said  of  the  French  and  English  ? 

I I .  What  did  Richard  perform  ?  What  happened  to  him  on  liis  re- 
tuin? 

12.  Who  engaged  in  the  fourth  crusade  ?     Wliat  was  Ms  fortune? 

13.  "What  was  performed  bv  John  de  Brienne? 

14.  What  is  said  of  St.  Louis  IX.  ? 

15.  What  was  his  success?  How  did  his  crusade  against  the  Moors 
terminate  ? 

16.  To  what  did  the  crusades  owe  their  origin  ?  What  is  siiid  of  them  ? 
What  character  did  they  assume?  What  were  some  of  their  effects? 
How  many  Europeans  were  buried  in  the  East  while  they  lasted  ?  What 
became  of  those  who  survived  ? 

17.  Of  what  beneficial  effects  were  they  productive?  In  what  were 
these  effects  obsei-vable  ? 

18.  What  system  prevailed  in  Europe  at  this  period?  What  were  the 
barons  who  engaged  in  the  cmsade  obliged  to  do?  What  was  the 
effect?     How  did  kings  raise  money? 

19.  What  is  said  of  the  manners  and  mode  of  life  that  prevailed  in 
Europe  ?  With  what  did  the  crusaders  become  acquainted  in  the  Ea.st ' 
To  what  institutions  did  the  crasades  give  rise  ? 

20.  What  was  the  cflect  of  the  crusades  on  commerce  and  the  arts  * 
How  had  commerce  before  this  period  been  carried  on  ?  "What  changes 
afterwards  took  place? 

21.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  crusades  on  literature  and  reUgion  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  period  of  their  commencement  and  duration  ?  "What 
took  place  after  two  centuries  of  disaster  ? 

22.  Were  these  benefits  designed  by  the  projectors  ? 


37S8  CHIVALRY. 


CHIVALRY. 

1.  What  is  said  of  Cliiralry  ?  Wliat  does  it  constitute  with  regard  to 
the  Middle  Ages  1     What  were  its  distinguishing  features  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  early  history  of  chivalry  ?  When  did  it  origi- 
nate"? Wliere  were  its  principles  found  before?  By  what  was  it  im- 
Lodicd  into  form "?     What  was  the  effect  of  the  crusades  upon  it  1 

3.  In  what  countries  did  chivalry  prevail  ? 

4.  How  were  the  sons  of  noblemen  destined  for  chivalry  disciplined  ? 
What  was  the  place  of  their  education?  What  were  their  different 
titles  1 

5.  How  were  they  managed?  By  whom  were  they  surrounded: 
Wliat  were  they  taught  ? 

6.  What  were  they  taught  by  the  ladies  of  the  castle  ?  What  were 
thej'  accustomed  to  do  in  order  that  they  might  have  opportunity  to  prac- 
tise the  instructions  which  they  received? 

7.  What  was  the  proper  age  for  admission  to  the  honors  of  knight- 
hood?    How  did  the  candidate  prepare  himself? 

8.  What  did  he  do  after  having  performed  the  preliminary  rites  ? 

9.  What  were  the  insignia  of  chivalry  which  he  received  from  the 
knights  and  the  ladies  ?     In  what  manner  was  he  dubbed? 

10.  AVhat  was  the  most  important  part  of  the  equipments  of  a  knight  1 
What  were  his  weapon  and  arms  ?     What  was  his  dress  ? 

1 1 .  What  virtues  and  endowments  were  necessary  to  form  an  accom- 
plished knight  ? 

12.  In  what  estimation  was  chivalry  held  ?  Wliat  did  one  become  on 
being  dubbed  ?     What  had  he  a  right  to  do  ? 

13.  What  was  he  authorized  to  cio  ?  How  did  he  proceed  in  relation 
to  his  mistress  ?  What  was  the  injunction  of  a  sovereign  when  he  led 
his  army  to  the  attack  ? 

14.  What  is  said  of  the  influence  of  chivalry  on  the  female  sex?  What 
was  the  duty  of  the  knights  with  regard  to  the  ladies? 

15.  What  is  said  of  the  behavior  of  a  knight  with  regard  to  the  fair 
sex. 

16.  Of  what  were  the  knights  and  ladies  ambitious  ? 

17.  What  virtues  did  chivalry  enjoin?  How  was  a  chevalier  treated 
on  entering  the  castle  of  another  1  If  he  arrived  wounded,  how  was  he 
received  ? 

18.  What  were  the  favorite  amusements  and  exercises  of  the  knights  "* 
What  does  Hallam  say  of  the  tournaments  ? 

19.  What  is  said  of  the  reward  of  the  victor? 

20.  What  is  said  of  the  influence  of  chivalry  ?  What  effects  are  meu- 
tioned  ? 

21.  With  what  did  chivalry  rise  and  fall?  What  put  an  end  both  to 
the  feudal  system  and  to  chivalry  ? 

22.  WHiat  does  Dr.  Eobertson  say  of  the  exploits  of  the  knights,  and 
of  the  effects  of  chivalry  ?  During  what  centuries  were  the  effects  of 
chivalry  most  felt  ? 

23.  What  is  said  of  the  morals  of  chivalry  ?  What  productions  afford 
evidence  of  dissolute  morals  ? 

24.  What  was  professed  and  what  performed  by  the  knights  ?  What 
did  chivalry  nourish  ?     To  what  did  it  give  birth  ? 

25.  To  whom  is  the  original  of  the  duel  traced  ?  How  far  did  it  pre- 
vail among  the  Gei-mans,  Danes,  and  Franks  ? 

26.  What  is  related  respecting  its  regulations  1  For  what  purpose  was 
it  then  resorted  to  ?    For  what  end  is  it  now  practised  ? 


FRANCE.  3!7a 


MODERN  mSTORY. 

1.  "What  different  periods  have  been  adopted  for  the  commencement 
of  Modern  Ilistorj'  ? 

2.  What  is  the  most  convenient  method  in  treating  of  the  histoiy  of 
the  several  European  States  1  What  European  sovereignty  traces  its  ori- 
gin farthiir  back  than  the  9th  century '.' 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  period  that  succeeded  the  downfall  of  the  Eastern 
Empire  ?     What  do  we  see  on  casting  an  eye  back  to  this  i)eriod  1 

4.  What  were  some  of  tlie  causes  of  the  beneficial  changes  f 

5.  What  is  said  of  tlie  Ilanse  Towns  1  When  was  the  League  formed, 
and  what  towns  were  associated  ?     Where  were  its  depots  "? 

6.  When  was  the  League  most  flourishing  ?  What  is  said  of  its  de- 
cline "? 

7.  When  had  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Pisa  the  management  of  European 
commerce  1  What  states  took  the  lead  in  the  maritime  discoveries  of  the 
15th  and  IGth  centuries  ? 

8.  By  what  states  have  Spain  and  Portugal  been  succeeded  in  maritime 
enterprise  t 

9.  What  are  now  the  most  powerful  European  States  ?  What  are  the 
countries  of  which  the  history  is  most  important  to  Americans  ? 


FRANCE. 
Section  L 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  history  of  France  and  of  England''  How  long 
did  the  kings  of  England  hold  possessions  in  France  ? 

2.  "WTio  were  the  ancestors  of  the  French  1  What  did  ancient  Gaul 
comprehend  f  By  whom  and  when  was  it  conquered  1  From  what 
people  did  it  receive  its  modern  name  ? 

3.  What  is  related  of  the  Franks  ?  What  is  the  first  race  of  French 
kings  styled  1  Who  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  monarchy  ?  What 
did  he  perform  1 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  Merovingian  kings  ?  "What  is  related  of  Pepin 
d'Heristel  and  Charles  Martel  ? 

5.  How  did  Pepin  obtain  the  crown  ?  Of  what  race  of  kings  was  he 
the  founder  1     How  did  Pepin  reward  the  pope  ? 

6.  By  whom  was  Pepin  succeeded  ? 

7.  "What  is  related  of  Charlemagne  ?  When  was  he  cro^vned  Emperor 
of  the  West  1     What  did  his  empire  comprise  ? 

8.  "What  is  said  of  Charlemagne's  services  to  literature?  How  did 
he  manifest  his  zeal  for  religion  ? 

9.  What  is  related  of  his  private  character  and  habits  ? 

10.  By  whom  was  Charlemagne  succeeded?  "What  great  battle  was 
fought  by  the  rival  brothers  ?     What  di\'ision  of  the  empire  followed  ? 

11.  By  whom  was  Charles  the  Bald  succeeded?  Who  was  elected 
after  the  short  reign  of  his  sons,  Louis  LEI.  and  Carloman  ?  "Wliat  event 
followed  ? 

12.  To  whom  was  the  cro^vn  next  given?  What  took  place  during 
the  reign  of  Charles  the  Simple? 

13.  What  took  place  during  the  reigns  of  Louis  IV.  and  Lothaire? 
What  is  related  of  Hugh  Capet  ? 

32 


374  FRANCE. 


Section  II. 

1.  By  -vWiom  wns  Hugh  Capet  succeeded? 

2.  What  law  was  enacted  during  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  ? 

3.  By  what  was  the  reign  of  Philip  I.  signalized?  "What  may  be 
dated  from  the  invasion  of  France  by  William  the  Conqueror  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  Louis  VI.  ? 

5.  WTiat  three  eminent  men  flourished  during  the  reign  of  Louis  VI  ? 

6.  What  act  of  violence  did  Louis  perfonn  ?  To  what  did  the  remorse 
which  he  felt  give  rise  ? 

7    Who  was  the  wife  of  Louis,  and  what  is  related  of  her  1 

8.  What  is  said  of  Philip  Augustus  ?  How  did  he  signalize  the  com- 
mencement of  his  reign  ? 

9.  Of  what  did  Philip  accuse  John,  king  of  England,  and  of  what  did 
he  deprive  him  ? 

10.  By  whom  was  Philip  succeeded? 

1 1 .  What  is  said  of  Louis  IX.  ?  For  what  was  he  distinguished  ? 
What  was  his  principal  weakness  ? 

12.  By  whom  was  St.  Louis  succeeded  ?  "Wliat  event  took  place  during 
his  reign  ? 

13.  What  is  said  of  Philip  IV.?  How  was  he  involved  in. a  quan'el 
with  Pope  Boniface  ? 

14.  What  took  place  after  the  death  of  Boniface?  What  is  the  re- 
moval of  the  seat  of  the  papacy  to  Avignon  called  ?  What  other  acts 
did  Philip  perform  ? 

15.  By  whom  was  Philip  succeeded?  For  what  was  the  reign  of  Philip 
V.  noted  1 

Section  III. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  children  of  Philip  the  Fair?  On  whom  did 
the  throne  devolve  after  the  death  of  Charles  the  Fair  ? 

2.  Who  claimed  the  crown  ?  To  what  did  this  claim  of  Edward  give 
rise  ?  What  did  Edward  perform  ?  What  favorable  event  happened  to 
Philip  in  the  midst  of  his  misfortunes  ? 

3.  By  whom  was  Philip  succeeded,  and  what  happened  to  him  ? 

4.  Who  next  ascended  the  throne?  Wliat  measures  did  Charles  V. 
adopt,  and  what  was  performed  '^ 

5.  ^Vhat  is  said  of  Charles  ?     How  large  a  library  did  he  collect  ? 

6.  By  whom  was  Charles  V.  succeeded  ?  What  is  said  of  him  and  of 
his  reign  ?     Who  was  his  queen  ? 

7.  What  advantages  did  Henry  V.  of  England  gain  ? 

8.  Who  next  succeeded  to  the  throne?  What  place  did  the  English 
besiege,  and  with  what  success  ? 

9.  By  whom  was  the  power  of  England  overthrown?  Who  was  thia 
heroine  ? 

10.  How  did  she  execute  her  exploit?  How  did  Charles  succeed? 
What  course  did  Joan  then  take,  and  what  was  her  fate  ? 

11.  What  was  the  success  of  the  French?  What  is  further  related 
of  Charles  ? 

12.  "What  is  said  of  the  character  and  reign  of  Louis  XI.  ? 

13.  In  what  war  was  he  involved  with  the  nobles  ? 

14.  What  is  said  of  Charles  VIII.  ?  In  what  expedition  did  he  en- 
gage« 


FRANCE.  375 


Section  IV 

1 .  By  whom  was  Charles  VIII.  succeeded  T  What  was  the  character 
of  Louis  XII.  What  did  he  say  with  respect  to  those  ministers  who  had 
treated  him  ill  before  he  came  to  the  tlirone  1 

2.  Wliut  is  lelatcd  of  his  exploits  and  success? 

.3.  "What  is  said  of  the  reiniblic  of  Venice'?  Wlio  projected  the  League 
of  Cambray  a^^ainst  it '.     What  was  the  issue? 

4.  What  victory  did  the  French  gain  ?  What  took  place  after  the 
death  of  Gaston  de  Foix  ? 

5.  Wlio  succeeded  Louis  XII.  ?     "Wliat  is  said  of  Francis  ? 

6.  For  what  were  Francis  and  Charles  rival  candidates?  What  did 
Francis  say  with  respect  to  the  object  of  competition  ? 

7.  What  was  the  issue,  and  how  did  it  affect  the  two  rivals  ? 

8.  For  what  is  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  distinguished?  What  is  said 
of  Charles  and  other  contemporary  sovereigns  ? 

9.  What  was  the  commencement  of  the  contest  between  the  two  rivals? 
What  is  related  respecting  the  Constable  of  Bourbon  ?  What  happened 
to  the  king  of  France  at  Pavia ' 

10.  What  course  did  Charles  take  with  regard  to  Francis?  What  did 
the  French  king  do  after  being  set  at  liberty  ?  What  is  said  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  two  sovereigns  ? 

1 1 .  How  did  the  two  monarchs  treat  each  other,  when  they  met  at 
Aigucs  Mortcs,  after  having  been  at  war  for  20  years?  What  afterwards 
took  place? 

12.  What  was  the  occasion  of  the  renewal  of  the  war?  What  was 
the  issue  ? 

1.3.  How  did  Francis  leave  his  kingdom?  Wliat  did  he  patronize? 
What  did  the  French  court  acquire  at  this  period? 

14.  What  cjualities  did  Francis  possess?     What  was  his  character? 

15.  Who  was  the  successor  of  Francis,  and  what  is  said  of  Henry  II.? 
What  is  said  of  his  reign  ?  "\^^iat  great  events  took  place  during  this 
war? 

16.  How  was  this  war  teiTninatcd?  By  what  other  events  was  the 
reign  of  Henry  signalized  ? 

17.  Who  was  the  successor  of  Ileniy?     Who  succeeded  Francis  II.? 

18.  What  was  now  the  state  of  Protestantism  in  France? 

1 9.  Who  was  at  the  head  of  the  Catholics  ?  For  what  purpose  Avas 
the  conspiracy  of  Amboise  formed?     What  was  the  issue  of  it? 

20.  What  public  conference  was  held?  What  edict  was  published? 
What  followed  ? 

21.  What  is  said  of  the  contest?     What  is  said  of  the  treaty  of  peace? 

22.  What  is  related  respecting  the  marriage  of  Henry  of  Navarre? 
What  massacre  was  planned?  What  is  related  respecting  the  massacre 
on  St.  Bartholomew's  day? 

2.3.  How  many  are  said  to  have  been  murdered?  What  does  De 
TIiou  sny  of  it? 

24.  What  is  related  respecting  Charles? 

2.5.  Wliat  was  done  at  Kome  on  hearing  the  news?  What  is  furthei 
said  of  Charles  and  his  reign  ? 

2G.  By  whom  was  Charles  succeeded?  What  was  the  effect  of  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew?  What  did  Ilenrj'  do  for  the  Protestants? 
What  course  did  the  Catholics  take? 

27.  What  measure  was  the  king  persuaded  to  adopt?  How  did  ho 
find  himself  situated,  and  what  did  he  do  ?    What  was  the  consequence  1 


376  FRANCE. 


Section  V 

1.  To  whom  did  the  throne  fjass  after  the  death  of  Henry  HI.  What 
is  said  of  the  mother  of  Henry  IV.,  and  of  liimself  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  anny  of  the  League '?  In  what  hattle  did  Henry 
defeat  it  1 

3.  Why  did  Henry  change  his  religion  ?  What  followed  1  What  did 
he  do  in  favor  of  the  Calvinists  ■? 

4.  To  what  (lid  Henry  turn  his  attention  after  being  quietly  seated  on 
the  throne  ?     By  whom  was  he  assisted  7     What  change  was  effected  ? 

5.  What  romantic  scheme  did  Hem-y  forml  'Wliat  happened  to  him 
before  he  executed  his  design  ? 

6.  What  is  said  of  the  character  of  Henry?  Wliat  was  his  reply  when 
asked  what  the  revenue  of  France  amounted  to  ? 

7.  What  were  the  defects  of  his  character?  How  many  persons  were 
killed  in  duels  during  the  first  eighteen  years  of  his  reign  ? 

8.  By  whom  was  Henry  succeeded  ?  What  is  said  of  Maiy  de  Medi- 
cis  ■?     What  is  related  of  Cai'dinal  Richelieu,  his  policy,  and  objects  ? 

9.  What  course  did  the  Protestants  take  1  What  measure  did  Richelieu 
adopt?     What  was  the  issue ? 

•   10.  What  is  further  related  respecting  the  proceedings  of  Richelieu ? 
By  whom  was  a  rebellion  excited  ?     What  did  Richelieu  effect  ? 

11.  What  is  said  of  the  character  of  Louis  ? 

12.  Who  next  succeeded  to  the  throne?  Who  was  chosen  minister? 
What  is  said  of  Mazarin  ?     By  what  was  his  administration  signalized  ? 

13.  What  took  place  after  the  death  of  Mazarin?  Wliat  is  related 
of  Louis  and  his  exploits  ? 

14.  Who  were  some  of  his  chief  men  in  the  cabinet  and  in  the  field  ? 

15.  Wliat  success  did  Louis  meet  wth?  What  is  related  respecting 
the  two  devastations  of  the  Palatinate? 

16.  WTiat  events  afterwards  took  place?  What  were  the  consequences 
of  Louis's  conquests  and  of  his  ambition  ? 

17.  What  states  united  against  him  in  the  League  of  Augsburg? 
What  alliance  was  formed  in  1701  ?  Against  whom  had  the  armies  of 
Louis  now  to  contend?  What  victories  did  INIarlborough  and  Prince 
Eugene  gain  ? 

18.  What  was  one  of  the  worst  measures  of  Louis?  "Wliat  was  done 
by  this  act  ?     What  did  France  lose  by  it  ? 

19.  How  long  was  the  reign  of  Louis  ?     What  is  said  of  it? 

20.  What  is  said  of  the  person  and  manners  of  Louis  ? 

21.  Wliat  is  said  of  his  talents  and  character?  AVhat  did  he  patron- 
ize, and  how  is  his  reign  regarded? 


Section  VI. 

1 .  Who  succeeded  Louis  XIV.  ?  For  what  is  the  regency  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  remarkable  ? 

2.  Whom  did  Louis  XV.  choose  for  his  minister  after  coming  of  age  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  administration  of  Fleury  ? 

3.  In  what  war  was  France  involved  after  the  death  of  Fleury  ?  Who 
were  the  two  claimants  for  the  imperial  throne?  By  whom  were  they 
supported  ?  Where  were  the  French  defeated,  and  what  battle  did  they 
gain  ?     How  were  hostilities  terminated  ? 

4.  What  war  broke  out  in  1775?  How  was  it  tei-minated?  How  was 
the  remainder  of  this  reign  chiefly  occupied  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  Louis  ?  What  title  was  confen-ed  upon  him  by  his 
subjects  ?  Wliat  induced  them  to  retract  it  ?  What  is  further  said  of 
him  and  his  reign  ? 


FRANCE.  8TJ 

6.  Wlio  succeeded  to  the  tlirone?  What  is  said^of  Louis  XVI.? 
What  were  the  diHicultics  of  his  situation  1 

7.  What  was  one  of  liis  first  measures'?  Who  were  appointed  to 
office  ?     Wliat  was  the  efi'ect  ? 

8.  Wiiat  is  said  of  Necker'?     Wliat  followed  after  he  was  displaced? 

9.  What  took  place  after  the  war  hroke  out  hetwecn  Great  Britain  and 
her  American  colonies?  What  was  the  state  of  afi'airs  after  the  return 
of  peace  i 

10.  What  were  some  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  French  Revolution? 
What  was  the  more  immediate  cause  ? 

11.  What  measure  did  Louis  adopt  hy  the  advice  of  Calonne?  What 
v,-ss  proposed  to  the  Asscmhly  of  the  Notables  ?     How  did  they  receive  it? 

12.  By  whom  was  Calonne  succeeded?  What  body  was  next  assem 
bled?     Of  wliat  orders  was  the  States  General  composed? 

13.  What  did  Necker  propose  respecting  tlic  States  General?  What 
was  the  result  ? 

14.  How  did  the  king  addi'css  the  States  General  ?  Wliat  difficulties 
arose  ? 

15.  A^'^lat  measui'C  did  the  commons  adopt  ?  Wlio  were  leading  mem- 
bers in  the  National  Assembly  ? 

16.  What  is  said  of  their  measures  ?  In  what  situation  were  the  king 
and  noliility  placed? 

17.  Wliat  is  said  of  the  dismissal  of  Necker?  'Wliat  outrages  were 
committed  ?     Wliat  is  said  of  the  king  and  royal  family  ? 

18.  What  is  said  of  the  progress  of  the  revolution  and  changes  which 
were  cftcctcd  ? 

19.  What  was  the  next  great  design  of  the  Assembly?  "What  is  related 
of  Louis  ?     "Wliat  of  the  constitution  ? 

20.  What  was  the  next  Assembly  styled  ?  Wliat  is  related  of  the  Jaco- 
bin Club? 

21.  "Wliat  new  body  next  met?  What  was  done  at  their  first  sitting? 
What  is  related  respecting  the  king  ? 

22.  Wliat  were  some  of  the  remarks  of  Descze  in  defence  of  Louis  ? 

23.  By  what  majority  was  the  king  condemned  ?  Wliat  is  further 
related  of  him  ? 

Section   VIL 

1.  When  was  the  constitution  completed,  and  in  wiiat  was  the  executive 
jiower  now  lodged?  Wliat  is  the  domination  of  Robespierre  and  his 
associates  styled  ?  What  two  parties  arose  in  the  National  Convention  ? 
'\\Tio  were  the  leaders  ? 

2.  Wliat  did  the  Mountain  party  do  ?  What  is  related  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans? 

3.  To  what  further  excesses  did  the  Convention  proceed  ?  Wliat  was 
done  to  the  churches  ? 

4.  How  was  the  Convention  divided  anew  ?  What  followed  ?  In  wliat 
was  the  executive  power  afterwards  vested  ?  How  many  constitutions 
were  fonned  from  1791  to  1799?  In  whom  was  the  executive  power 
vested  bj^  the  fourtli  ? 

5.  Wliat  was  the  French  Revolution  at  first?  What  did  it  become? 
What  change  did  it  eftect  ? 

6.  What  course  was  taken  by  many  of  the  nobility  and  clergy  before 
the  execution  of  the  king?  What  was  the  ctt'cct?  Of  what  was  this  the 
origin  ?  \Vliat  states  declared  war  against  France  after  the  death  of  the 
king? 

7.  AVbat  is  said  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  ? 

8.  AVhat  was  the  issue  of  the  invasion?     "Wliat  advantages  did  France 

3-3* 


378;  !■  RANGE. 

gain?     To  whom  was  the  command  of  the  army  in  Italy  given?     What 
did  Bonaparte  acconiplisli  ? 

9.  Wlien  was  the  ISccond  Coalition  formed?  Wliat  had  Bonaparte 
done  before  this  event  1 

10.  What  advantages  were  gained  over  the  French  in  1799?  Wliat 
did  Bonaparte  do  at  this  crisis  ? 

1 1 .  AVhat  change  now  took  place  in  the  affairs  of  France  ? 

12.  Wliat  achievements  did  Bonaparte  then  perform  ?  To  what  events 
did  the  victories  of  Marengo  and  Ilohenlinden  lead  ? 

13.  What  is  said  of  the  limits  of  France  and  power  of  Bonaparte? 
What  measiu'c  did  the  Convention  adopt  with  regard  to  religion  ? 

14.  To  what  office  was  Bonaparte  now  raised  ?  By  whom  was  a  con- 
spiracy formed  against  him  ?  What  became  of  the  conspirators  ?  What 
were  Bonaparte's  next  elevations  ? 

15.  WTien  and  by  what  powers  was  the  Third  Coalition  formed?  What 
course  did  Bonaparte  then  take,  and  with  what  success  ?  What  followed 
the  victory  of  Austerlitz  ? 

16.  What  victory  was  gained  by  Lord  Nelson  a  little  before  the  battle 
of  Austerlitz  ? 

17.  What  course  did  Bonaparte  take  with  regard  to  Naples  and  Hol- 
land ?  What  with  respect  to  the  Gennan  empire  ?  What  was  done 
by  Francis  II.  ?     What  electors  did  Bonaparte  raise  to  the  rank  of  kings  ? 

18.  How  and  by  wliom  was  the  Fourth  Coalition  formed?  What 
battles  did  Bonaparte  gain  ?  What  did  he  do  on  entering  the  capital  of 
Prussia  ?     What  other  battle  did  the  French  anny  gain  ? 

19.  Wliat  were  the  next  proceedings  of  Bonaparte?  What  treaties 
were  made  Avith  Russia  and  Pnissia  ?  What  was  done  with  the  provinces 
conquered  from  Prussia  ? 

20.  What  course  did  the  British  government  take  in  retaliation  of  the 
Berlin  Decree  ?     What  was  done  by  thc'emperor  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit  ? 

21.  How  did  Bonaparte  seem  to  be  affected  by  his  success?  What  did 
he  do  respecting  Spain  and  Portugal  ? 

22.  How  did  he  dispose  of  the  throne  of  Spain  ? 

23.  What  part  did  the  Spaniards  take?  How  long  did  the  war  last ? 
Who  commanded  the  forces  of  England  and  Spain  ?  What  were  some 
of  the  principal  explo'ts  ? 

24.  With  what  empire  was  Franco  again  involved  in  war?  What  sue 
cesses  did  Bonaparte  gain  ? 

25.  To  what  terms  was  the  emperor  of  Austria  compelled  to  submit 
by  the  treaty  of  Vienna?     What  followed  in  consequence  of  this  treaty? 

26.  To  what  did  Alexander  accede  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  and  what 
were  its  consequences ?  How  was  the  year  1811  spent?  What  measures 
did  Bonaparte  adopt? 

27.  Whither  did  he  direct  liis  march?  What  events  followed ?  Why 
was  Moscow  burnt  ? 

28.  How  did  this  transaction  affect  Bonaparte,  and  what  had  he  ex- 
pected ?     What  course  was  he  compelled  to  adopt  ? 

29.  What  is  said  of  his  retreat  ?     What  losses  were  sustained  ? 

30.  What  course  did  the  French  emperor  pursue  ?  How  large  an  army 
did  he  now  raise  ?     By  what  was  he  opposed  ? 

.^1.  What  were  the  next  events  ?  What  is  said  of  the  battle  of  Leip 
sic? 

32.  What  course  did  Bonaparte  now  take?  What  was  done  by  the 
Allies? 

33.  What  measure  was  Bonaparte  now  compelled  to  adopt,  and  what 
place  was  fixed  upon  for  his  residence  ?     What  followed  ? 

34.  For  what  purpose  was  the  Congress  of  Vienna  assembled  ?  What 
did  Bonaparte  now  undertake  ?  How  did  he  proceed  ?  What  is  said  of 
his  progress  ? 


FRANCE.  379 

35.  What  measures  did  he  take  to  strengtlien  his  authority'' 

36.  What  was  done  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ?    Wliat  events  followed  1 

37.  What  is  said  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo '?  What  course  did  Bona- 
parte now  take?  What  was  done  with  liiiu  by  the  allied  sovereigns? 
When  did  Bonaparte  die,  and  at  what  age  ? 

38.  What  is  said  of  the  career  of  Bonaparte  ?  At  what  age  was  he 
raised  to  his  several  elevations  t     Wliat  is  said  of  his  power  ? 

39.  Why  may  he  be  called  a  king-maker  'i  What  is  remarked  of  the  last 
four  kings  t 

40.  What  did  he  unite  in  liis  own  person?  What  is  said  of  his  deeds  ? 
For  what  is  France  indebted  to  him? 

41.  Of  what  beneficial  measures  was  he  the  author?  What  was  his 
ruling  passion  ?  What  is  said  of  his  opportunity  of  being  useful  ?  What 
did  he  choose  to  be  ? 

42.  Wliat  is  further  said  of  him  and  his  career? 


Section  VIII. 

1 .  AVliat  took  place  after  the  second  dethronement  of  Bonaparte  ?  What 
measures  were  taken  in  relation  to  France  ?  What  relating  to  the  officers 
wlio  sided  witli  Bonaparte  ? 

2.  'Wliat  is  said  of  Louis  XVIII.,  his  situation,  and  policy?  What  was 
one  of  the  principal  events  of  liis  reign? 

3.  Who  succeeded  Louis  XVIII.?     What  is  said  of  him  ? 

4.  By  what  enterprises  was  his  reign  distinguished  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  the  contests  of  parties?  What  course  did  Charles 
take  ? 

6.  What  was  done  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  ?  ^Vllat  events  followed, 
and  what  measures  were  adopted  ? 

7.  What  occurrences  then  took  place  ? 

8.  What  course  did  the  citizens  take  ?  Who  commanded  the  National 
Guards  ?     What  was  done  by  the  Chambers  ? 

9.  What  became  of  Charles  ? 

1 0.  What  is  said  of  Louis  Philippe  ?  Wliat  was  his  course  ?  "Who 
were  some  of  his  ministers  ? 

1 1 .  What  is  said  of  his  foreign  policy,  and  of  the  condition  of  France 
during  liis  reign  ?     Wliat  is  further  said  of  him,  and  of  his  fiite  ? 

12.  A\niat  was  the  most  considerable  foreign  achievement  ? 

13.  What  is  said  of  the  state  of  the  country  and  the  feeling  of  the  lower 
classes  ?     Wliat  is  said  of  these  classes  ? 

14.  What  classes  were  favored  by  the  government?  What  did  these 
classes  do  for  the  government? 

15  What  is  said  of  the  system  of  obtaining  venal  support?  With  what 
was  the  government  charired  ?     Wliat  were  other  causes  of  dissatisfiiction  ? 

16.  To  wliom  were  these  offensive  measures  ascribed  ?  Wliat  impres- 
sion gained  ground  among  the  people  ? 

17.  What  occurrence  promoted  discontent?  Wliat  course  did  the  oppo- 
nents of  the  government  take  ? 

18.  When  was  a  Rcfoi-ni  Bancjuet  proposed  to  be  held  in  Paris?  Wliat 
course  did  the  king's  ministers  take?     What  was  the  result? 

19.  What  took  place  on  the  day  the  banquet  was  to  have  been  held  ? 
Wliat  was  done  by  the  ])eople  ? 

20.  What  was  done  on  the  two  following  days  ?  What  was  done  by  the 
king,  and  by  Guizot? 

21.  "Wliat  course  was  taken  by  the  insurgents  ?     Wliat  followed? 

22.  AVliat  was  done  by  the  provisional  government?  What  decrees 
were  issued  ? 


380  ENGLAND. 

23.  Wliat  was  done  liy  tlie  National  Assembly? 

24.  What  took  place  in  June  1     What  followed  ? 

25.  What  was  done  liy  the  National  Assembly,  after  a  session  of  six 
months  "*     For  what  does  the  constitution  provide  ? 

26.  Who  was  elected  President';  By  how  many  votes?  What  is  said 
of  Louis  Napoleon  ?     For  what  has  he  been  chiefly  distinguished  ? 

27. 'When  did  a  new  National  Assembly  commence  a  session  ?  How 
have  elections  resulted  '!     What  has  been  the  course  of  the  government? 

28.  What  took  place,  in  1 848,  at  Home  ?  What  was  done  by  the  French ' 
What  did  the  French  army  accomplish  ? 


CnEONOLOGICAL    TaBLE    OF   FRENCH    HiSTORT. No.    I. 

Who  were  the  first  two  kings  of  the  Carlovingian  Race  ? 
Who  was  the  first  of  the  Capetian  Race  ?     Of  the  Branch  of  Valois  ? 
When  did  Charlemagne  begin  to  reign?     Hugh  Capet?     St.  Lonis? 
Philip  VI.  ?     Francis  I.  ? 
What  is  said  of  Pepin  and  his  reign  ?     Charlemagne  ?  &c. 


Chronological  Table  of  French  History.  —  No.  2. 

Who  was  the  first  king  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  ? 

When  did  Hemy  IV.  begin  to  reign?     Louis  XIV.?     Louis  XVI.  J 
Bonaparte  ?     Louis  XVIII.  ?     Louis  Philippe  ? 
When  did  Louis  Napoleon  become  President  of  the  republic  of  France  ? 
When  was  France  first  declared  a  republic  ?     When  the  last  time  ? 
What  is  said  of  Henry  IV.  and  his  reign  ?    Louis  XIII.  ?  &c. 


ENGLAND. 
Section  I. 

1 .  What  is  said  of  the  history  of  England  ? 

2.  What  conflicts  have  been  maintained  in  England  ? 

3.  Wliy  is  the  history  of  England  interesting  to  the  citizens  of  the  United 
States  ? 

4.  Why  do  we  feel  an  interest  in  the  conflicts  which  civil  and  religious 
liberty  has  had  with  despotism  and  bigotry  in  England  ? 

.5.  AVlien  did  Julius  Cicsar  invade  Britain  ?     Who  defeated  Caractacns  ? 
By  Avhom  was  the  Roman  dominion  completely  established  ? 

6.  Wliat  sort  of  people  were  the  Britons  at  the  time  of  the  conquest? 
What  were  flieir  habits  and  their  religion  ? 

7.  What  three  walls  did  the  Romans  build  across  Britain?     When  did 
they  entirely  abandon  the  country? 

8.  By  whom  was  the  southern  part  of  the  island  afterwards  invaded ' 
To  whom  did  the  Britons  apply  for  assistance ?     What  was  the  result? 

9.  What  course  did  the  Saxons  take  ?     From  whom  is  the  name  of  Eng- 
land derived  ? 

10.  What  is  related  of  Arthur  ?     How  long  did  the  Heptarchy  subsist  1 
Who  united  the  seven  kingdoms  into  one  monarchy  ? 

1 1 .  How  was  Christianity  introduced  ?    What  was  the  state  of  society  1 


ENGLAND.  tlb-k 


Section  n. 

1.  What  is  related  of  the  Danes  f 

2.  What  is  said  of  Alfred  and  of  his  contest  with  the  Danes  ?  What 
was  he  ronipclled  to  do? 

3.  What  sti;ita<;em  did  he  use?     AVhat  was  his  success? 

4.  How  did  he  employ  himself  after  tranquillity  was  restored  ?  What 
measures  arc  attributed  to  him  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  the  character  of  Alfred  ? 

6.  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?     What  is  said  of  Edward  ? 

7.  What  is  related  of  Athelstan? 

8.  What  is  related  of  Edmund  ?     Of  Edred  ?     Of  Dunstan  ? 

9.  What  is  mentioned  of  Edwy  or  Edwin  1 

10.  For  what  is  the  reign  of  Edgar  remarkable  ? 

1 1 .  By  whom  was  Edgar  succeeded  ?     What  is  said  of  Edward  ? 

12.  What  outrage  was  committed  by  Ethelrcd  that  exasperated  the 
Danes  1 

1.3.  What  did  the  Danes  accomplish?     Wlio  succeeded  Ethelred? 

14.  What  took  place  after  the  death  of  Sweyn?  What  did  Canute  ac- 
complish ?     What  is  said  of  him  ? 

15.  What  two  other  Danish  kings  succeeded  to  the  throne? 

16.  Who  was  then  raised  to  the  throne?  Wliat  is  said  of  Edward? 
With  what  privilege  was  he  said  to  be  favored  ?  How  long  was  the  prac- 
tice of  touching  for  the  king's  evil,  by  tlie  English  kings,  continued  ? 

17.  To  whom  did  Edward  bequeathe  the  crown?  Who  was  elected  by 
the  nobility  ? 

18.  What  did  William  resolve  to  do?  What  followed ?  What  losses 
were  sustained  ?    What  was  the  issue  ? 


Section  m. 

1 .  What  is  said  of  William  ?    "What  does  Mr.  Burke  say  of  him  ? 

2.  In  what  way  did  he  disgust  the  English  ?     Wliat  changes  did  he  in- 
troduce ? 

3.  What  did  he  do  by  his  forest  laws  ?    How  did  he  form  the  New  For- 
est 1     What  was  one  of  the  most  useful  acts  of  his  reign  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  William  II.  and  his  reign  ? 

5.  In  what  way  did  Henry  I.  obtain  the  crown  ?     What  more  did  he  do 
respecting  his  brother  ? 

6.  How  were  the  Saxon  and  Norman  families  united?     What  affliction 
did  Henry  suffer,  and  what  is  said  of  him  ? 

7.  Who  was  tlie  rightful  heir  to  the  crown  after  the  death  of  Henry? 
Who  usurped  the  throne  ?     What  followed  ? 

8.  What  was  done  by  Henry  ?     "Wliat  followed  ?    What  is  said  of  Ste 
phen's  reign  ? 


Section  IV. 

1.  What  is  said  of  Henry  11.  ?    Why  is  he  called  Shortmantle  ?    What 
did  he  possess  besides  England  ? 

2.  By  what  had  the  countries  of  Europe  been  agitated?    Wlien  did  this 
contest  reach  its  height  ?     What  is  said  of  Thomas  a  Becket  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  power  of  the  clergy  ?     What  of  their  morals  ? 

4.  What  did  Henry  resolve  to  do  ?     What  course  did  he  adopt  ?    What 


882  ENGLAND. 

was  enacted  in  tlicse  Constitutions  ?    What  was  Becket's  course  ?    WhAl 
was  said  by  Henry  t     Wiiat  was  the  consequence  ? 

5 .  What  was  the  effect  of  tliis  transaction  f  Wliat  was  done  by  the  Pope  ? 
What  followed  ? 

6.  What  penance  did  Henry  do  for  his  offence  ?  What  became  of  the 
assassins  f 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  latter  part  of  Henry's  reign  ?  What  is  said  of  his 
sons  ? 

8.  What  is  related  of  Queen  Eleanor?     What  alienated  the  queen  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  Henry's  attachment  to  his  children  ?  What  did  he  do 
when  he  found  that  his  son  John  had  joined  the  confederacy  against  him  ■* 

10.  What  is  said  of  the  character  of  Henry "? 

1 1 .  For  what  is  his  reign  remarkable  ?  What  is  related  respecting  the 
arts  and  conveniences  of  life  f 

12.  What  is  related  respecting  the  magnificence  of  Becket? 

13.  How  did  Richard  I.  commence  his  reign  ?  With  whom  did  he  unite 
in  a  crusade  1     What  was  achieved  ? 

14.  What  happened  to  him  as  he  was  returning  home'?  How  was  he 
ransomed  ? 

15.  What  has  Richard  been  styled,  and  what  is  said  of  him  ? 

16.  What  crime  is  John,  Richard's  brother  and  successor,  supposed  to 
have  committed  1  "What  course  did  Philip  Augustus  of  France  take? 
What  followed  ? 

1 7 .  What  is  related  of  Pope  Innocent  III.  ?  In  what  way  did  John  make 
peace  ? 

18.  What  was  done  by  the  barons  ?  What  followed  ?  What  is  said  of 
Magna  Charta  ?     What  other  cliarter  did  the  king  grant  ? 

19.  What  is  said  of  John  and  his  reign? 

20.  What  is  said  of  Henry  III.  and  his  reign  ? 

21.  What  is  said  respecting  the  cause  of  freedom  and  the  prosperity  of 
the  nation  ? 

22.  What  was  done  by  the  barons  ?  What  measure  did  the  twenty-four 
barons  adopt? 

23.  What  was  the  effect  of  this  measure  ?  Where  did  Leicester  defeat 
the  royal  army  ?  What  did  he  afterwards  do  ?  Of  what  was  his  summon- 
ing deputies  from  the  principal  boroughs  the  commencement  ? 

24.  What  did  Prince  Edward  perform  ?     Wliat  was  the  issue  ? 

25.  What  did  Edward  I.  do  to  the  Jews  ?  What  did  he  afterwards  ac- 
complish ?     What  did  he  create  his  eldest  son  ? 

26.  What  effect  had  the  conquest  of  Wales  on  Edward  ?  What  took 
place  with  regard  to  Scotland  ? 

27.  What  took  place  in  consequence  of  Baliol's  i-enouncing  his  allegiance  1 
Wliat  did  Edward  accomplish  ? 

28.  Who  i-oused  the  Scots  to  recover  their  independence  ?  What  was 
the  issue  ?  What  happened  to  Wallace  ?  Wlio  was  the  second  Scotch 
champion  ?     ^Vliat  further  was  done  by  Edward  ? 

29.  What  is  said  of  Edward  ?  Wliat  of  his  reign  ?  Wliat  important 
clause  did  he  add  to  Magna  Charta  ? 

30.  What  enterprise  did  Edward  II.  undertake  ?     What  was  the  issue  ? 

31.  What  is  said  of  Edward  ?     How  was  his  reign  characterized? 

32.  What  is  said  of  Isabella  ?     What  Avas  done  to  the  king  ? 

33.  Who  had  tlie  chief  control  during  the  minority  of  Edward  III.? 
Wliat  is  said  of  Edward  on  his  coming  of  age  ?  What  became  of  Mortimer 
and  Isabella  ? 

34.  What  victory  did  Edward  gain  over  the  Scots  ?  Wliat  measure  did 
be  adopt  with  regard  to  France  ? 

35.  What  naval  victory  did  he  gain  ? 


ENGLAND  383 

36.  What  account  is  given  of  the  battle  of  Cressy  ?  For  what  is-  this 
battle  inemorahle  '(    What  further  advantage  did  he  gain  ? 

37.  What  took  place  in  England  while  Edward  was  in  France? 

38.  What  account  is  given  of  the  battle  of  Poictiers  ?  What  was  done 
with  King  John  ? 

30.  What  is  said  of  Edward  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  ?  What  is 
mentioned  of  the  Elack  Prince  and  of  Charles  V.  of  France  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  death  of  the  Black  Prince  ? 

40.  "What  is  .said  of  Edward  and  lii.s  reign  '^     What  is  said  of  his  wars  1 

41.  What  is  mentioned  rcs])ecting  chivalry  in  this  reign? 

42.  What  15  said  of  Eichard  II.  ?  To  whom  was  the  administration  of 
the  govemmcut  intrusted  during  his  minority  ?  What  is  said  of  John  of 
Gaunt  ? 

43.  What  tax  was  imposed,  and  what  was  its  effect  ?  What  is  related 
respecting  a  tax-gatlicrer  ?     What  events  followed  ? 

44.  What  account  is  given  of  the  battle  of  Otterbum  ?  What  ballad  is 
founded  on  tliis  battle  ? 

45.  AMiat  did  Richard  do  respecting  his  cousin  Hem'y  ?  How  did  Henry 
revenge  himself?     What  became  of  the  king  ? 

46.  Who  was  the  ti-ue  heir  to  the  cro^vn  ?  What  contests  followed  tliis 
transaction  ?    What  is  said  of  Chaucer  1 


Section  V. 

1 .  What  is  said  of  Heniy's  situation  ?  What  account  is  given  of  the 
battle  of  Shrewsbury  ? 

2.  What  was  supposed  respecting  Henry  while  a  subject?  How  did  he 
proceed  after  he  came  to  the  tin-one  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  Henry  and  his  reign  ? 

4.  By  what  was  the  latter  part  of  his  life  imbittered?  What  is  related 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales  ? 

5.  What  did  the  king  say  respecting  the  circumstance  ? 

6.  What  course  did  Henry  V.  take  on  succeeding  to  the  tin-one  ?  Wliat 
is  said  of  this  conduct  ? 

7.  AVhat  account  is  given  of  Sir  John  Oldcastle  ? 

8.  In  what  war  did  Heniy  engage,  and  what  battle  did  he  gain  ?  What 
was  the  loss  of  the  French  ?     What  followed  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  the  reign  and  character  of  Henry  ? 

10.  At  wliat  age  was  Henry  VI.  proclaimed  king  of  England  and  France? 
To  whom  was  his  education  intrusted,  and  who  were  protectors  of  his  do- 
minions ? 

11.  Wliat  is  related  of  Charles  VII.  and  his  success? 

12.  What  is  said  of  Henry  on  coming  of  age  ?  Whom  did  he  marry  ? 
What  is  said  of  her? 

13.  Wliat  is  related  of  Jack  Cade's  rebellion  ? 

14.  What  is  mentioned  respecting  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  ?  What  was 
the  consequence  of  his  death  ? 

15.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster?  How 
were  the  parties  distinguished,  and  what  were  the  wars  styled  ? 

16.  W#at  is  related  of  this  quarrel  ? 

17.  In  what  battles  were  the  Lancastrians  defeated?  What  was  dona 
by  the  queen  ?  What  did  the  son  and  successor  of  the  Duke  of  York  ac- 
complish ? 


9l84h  ENGLAND. 


Section  VI. 

1.  What  battle  took  place  between  the  two  parties,  soon  after  Edward 
IV.  was  raised  to  the  tluone  ?  How  many  were  slain  ?  What  became  of 
Henry  f 

2.  What  became  of  the  queen  ?  What  is  related  of  her  deliverance  by  a 
robber  ? 

3.  By  whom  had  the  House  of  York  been  hitherto  supported  ?  What 
course  did  the  Earl  of  Warwick  take  in  consequence  of  Edward's  ofFend;'ng 
him  1     What  followed  ? 

4.  What  was  the  issue  of  the  battle  of  Bamet  ?  Of  Tewksbmy  ?  Wflat 
became  of  the  queen  and  her  son  ? 

5.  What  course  did  Edward  aftei"n'ards  pursue  ?  What  did  he  dO  to  his 
brother,  the  Didic  of  Clarence  1    What  is  said  of  him  'i 

6.  Who  succeeded  to  the  throne  1  What  is  related  of  Richard  Duke  of 
Gloucester  ■?     What  was  done  with  the  young  princes  ? 

7.  In  whom  did  Richard  HI.  find  an  avenger  'i  What  followed  1  What 
was  the  effect  of  the  battle  of  Boswortli  1 

8.  What  is  said  of  the  character  and  person  of  Richard  1 


Section  VII. 

1 .  How  did  Henry  VII.  strengthen  his  claim  to  the  crown  ?  What  was 
Henry's  descent  ?     What  is  said  of  the  Tudor  family  1 

2.  Wliat  was  the  policy  of  Henry  ?  What  was  attempted  by  Lambert 
Simnel  ?     What  by  Perkiu  Warbeck  "?     What  is  said  of  him  ? 

3.  To  what  did  the  adventurers  aspire  ?  What  was  the  destiny  of  Sim- 
nel 1     What  of  Perkin  ?     Who  was  executed  near  the  same  time  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  character  and  habits  of  Henry  ?  What  did  he  ac- 
cumulate by  his  fragality  and  exactions  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  his  reign  1     What  was  the  cifect  of  his  regulations  ? 

6.  What  was  the  consequence  of  his  permitting  the  nobles  to  alienate 
their  lands  1     Wliat  was  the  commencement  of  the  English  navy  ? 

7.  What  advantages  had  Henry  VIII.  on  succeeding  to  the  throne  ? 

8.  What  was  the  character  which  he  developed  ?  What  does  Su"  Walter 
Raleigh  say  of  him  1 

9.  What  is  said  of  his  government  ?     What  of  his  ministers  ? 

10.  What  became  of  the  treasures  which  he  inherited?  What  were  the 
military  operations  of  his  reign  ? 

1 1 .  How  did  he  obtain  the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith  ? 

1 2.  What  are  the  most  memorable  ti'ansactions  of  his  reign  1  Who  was 
his  first  wife  f     What  is  said  of  this  connection  "? 

13.  What  is  related  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  in  relation  to  this  matter? 

14.  What  course  was  taken  to  disannul  the  mamage  ?  What  afterwards 
took  place  in  England  ? 

15.  What  is  remarked  respecting  the  separation  of  England  from  the 
Church  of  Rome  ?  What  course  did  Henry  now  pursue  ?  Who  were  be- 
headed for  refusing  to  acknowledge  his  supremacy  ? 

16.  What  was  the  fiite  of  Anne  Boleyn  1  Who  were  Henry's  other 
queens,  and  what  was  their  destiny  ? 

1 7 .  What  three  children  did  Henry  leave  ?  Who  succeeded  him  1  What 
is  said  of  his  reign  1     What  is  said  of  the  Reformation  ? 

1 8.  What  is  related  of  Edward  1    To  whom  did  he  bequeathe  the  crown  ? 

19.  By  whom  was  Edward  succeeded  ?     What  is  said  of  Mary  ? 

20.  What  is  related  of  Jane  Grey  and  her  husband  ? 


ENGLAND.  386 

21.  What  message  did  Jane  Grey  send  to  her  husband  on  the  day  of 
her  execution  1 

22.  What  course  was  taken  with  regard  to  religion  1  Who  were  some 
of  the  most  eminent  martyrs  ?  What  effect  was  produced  by  these  pro- 
ceedings ? 

2.3.  To  whom  was  Mary  married?  What  happened  in  the  last  year 
of  her  reign  '?     What  is  related  respecting  her  death  ? 

24.  How  was  the  accession  of  ElizalK'th  received?  What  is  said  of 
her  reign  ?     By  what  names  was  it  illustrated  ? 

2.").  What  is  related  of  the  changes  with  rcspect  to  religion  ?  Of  9,000 
cler)i;ymen,  how  many  gave  up  their  j)refermeiits  on  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  ? 

2G.  With  what  is  Elizabeth  charged  in  her  treatment  of  INIary,  Ciueeii 
of  Scots  ?     Who  was  Mary  ?     What  had  she  been  persuaded  to  do '! 

27.  AVhat  had  taken  place  at  the  period  of  Mary's  return  to  Scotland? 

28.  What  is  related  of  Mary's  second  and  third  mai-riages?  What 
effect  did  her  conduct  produce  ? 

29.  What  course  did  Mary  then  take  ?     What  was  her  fate  ? 

30.  How  did  Elizabeth  offend  Philip  II.  of  Spain?  How  did  he  at- 
tempt to  avenge  himself? 

31.  Of  what  did  the  Armada  consist?  By  what  force  and  what  com- 
manders was  it  met  i     What  was  the  result  ? 

32.  By  what  eminent  statesmen  was  Elizabeth  assisted?  Who  were 
her  chief  personal  favorites  ? 

33.  What  is  said  of  the  close  of  her  life?  To  what  has  her  unhappiness 
been  ascribed  ?     What  anecdote  is  related  respecting  Essex  ? 

34.  What  is  said  of  Elizabeth  and  her  public  character  ?  What  were 
her  three  leading  maxims  of  poUcy  ?  What  is  further  said  of  her  reign 
and  character? 

35.  What  is  said  of  her  private  character,  manners,  &c.  ? 


Section  VIII. 

1.  Whom  did  Elizabeth  nominate  for  her  successor?  What  title  did 
James  assume  ?     What  is  said  of  the  Stuart  family  ? 

2.  What  conspiracy  was  formed  against  James  ?  What  is  related  of 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  ? 

3.  What  was  the  design  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot?  Who  was  taken 
with  matches  in  his  pocket  ? 

4.  What  was  James's  characteristic  weakness?  Who  were  his  chief 
favorites  ? 

5.  When  did  the  Puritans  first  make  their  appearance?  For  what 
were  they  advocates  ?  Were  their  hopes  realized  on  the  accession  of 
James  ?  "  Wliat  settlement  did  they  begin  ? 

6.  What  was  James's  leading  characteristic?  What  was  his  favor- 
ite topic?     What  was  the  best  part  of  his  character? 

7.  Wliat  is  said  of  his  private  character,  talents,  and  manners  ?  "VYliat 
does  Bishop  Burnet  say  of  him  ? 

8.  Wliat  circumstances  had  conspired  to  diffuse  the  spirit  of  liberty  ? 
How  was  the  current  of  public  opinion  directed  ? 

9.  Under  what  circiunstances  did  Charles  I.  ascend  the  throne?  What 
was  the  state  of  feeling  of  many  of  his  subjects  ?  Of  what  did  he  soon 
give  proof?     Whom  did  he  marry  ? 

10.  Wliy  did  Charles  visit  Madrid?  Wliat  was  the  result?  Why 
was  Charles  offended  with  the  Parliament?     What  course  did  he  pursue? 

11.  What  taxes  did  he  levy?  How  was  the  tax  of  ship-money  levied* 
What  did  Charles  claim  ?     What  is  said  of  this  tax  ? 

33 


886  ENGLAND. 

12.  Who  opposed  this  tax?    How  was  the  cause  decided? 

13.  Who  were  Charles's  chief  counsellors  after  the  assassination  of 
Buckingham  ?     What  course  did  Laud  pursue  1 

14.  What  measure  did  the  king  undertake  with  respect  to  Scotland? 
What  effect  did  it  produce  ?  Wliat  took  place  at  one  of  the  churches 
in  Edinburgh  ? 

15.  What  success  did  the  prelates  meet  viith  in  other  parts?  What 
is  said  of  the  National  Covenant  ?     What  other  bond  was  formed  ? 

IC.  Wlien,  after  eleven  years'  intermission,  the  king  convoked  a  Par- 
liament, what  measures  did  the  House  of  Commons  adopt?  What  waa 
done  by  a  Parliament  afterwards  assembled  ? 

17.  How  had  Charles  already  violated  the  privileges  of  Parliament? 
Into  what  act  of  greater  indiscretion  was  he  afterwards  betrayed  ?  What 
answer  did  Lenthal,  the  Speaker,  make,  when  the  king  ordered  him  to 
point  out  the  five  men  ? 

18.  How  did  the  king  then  proceed?  What  was  now  the  feeling  of 
the  Parliament  towards  him  ? 

19.  By  whom,  in  the  civil  war,  was  the  cause  of  the  king  supported? 
By  whom  that  of  the  Parliament  ?  AVhat  were  the  supporters  of  each 
styled  ? 

20.  What  formed  the  characteristic  of  most  of  the  leaders  in  Parlia- 
ment? On  whom  did  the  chai-ge  of  license  and  excess  chiefly  fall? 
Wliat  is  remarked  by  Mr.  Baxter  ? 

21.  How  long  was  it  since  England  had  been  but  little  engaged  in 
war?  Who  wei"e  the  chief  commanders  in  the  royal  army?  Who  in 
the  Parliamentary  army  ?  What  two  men  were  killed  in  an  early  part 
of  the  contest?  In  what  battles  had  the  royalists  the  advantage?  In 
what  ones  were  they  defeated  ? 

22.  What  happened  to  the  king?  What  measure  was  adopted  re- 
specting him  ?     Wliat  sentence  was  passed  ? 

23.  What  is  said  of  Charles  on  this  occasion,  and  how  did  he  conduct 
himself? 

24.  What  lesson  does  the  fate  of  Charles  furnish?  What  is  said  of 
the  feelings  of  the  people  respecting  his  execution?  What  has  been  th« 
effect  of  it  on  his  reputation  ? 

25.  What  were  the  misfortunes  of  Charles's  condition?  What  was 
his  greatest  defect  ? 

26.  What  is  said  of  his  talents,  private  character,  and  manners  ? 

27.  What  is  said  of  the  proceedings  of  Charles?  What  does  IMr. 
Hume  say  respecting  the  Puritans  ? 

28.  What  is  said  of  those  who  opposed  the  king  ? 

29.  What  measures  were  adopted  after  the  death  of  the  king? 

30.  What  was  done  respecting  episcopacy?  Who  soon  after  gained 
the  ascendency?  To  what  body  was  the  power  transferred  from  the 
Parliament  ?  Of  whom  was  that  part  of  the  Parliament  called  the  Rump 
composed  ? 

31.  What  course  was  adopted  by  the  Parliament  of  Scotland?  Where 
did  Cromwell  c^efcat  the  royalist  Covenanters  ?  What  account  is  given 
of  the  battle  of  Worcester  ? 

32.  What  adventures  did  young  Charles  meet  with  ? 

33.  What  is  said  of  the  Navigation  Act?  Of  what  war  was  this  act 
the  cause  ?  How  did  this  war  terminate,  and  who  took  a  distinguished 
part  in  it  ? 

34.  How  many  years  had  the  Long  Parliament  been  in  session? 
What  course  did  it  adopt  ?  What  did  Cromwell  resolve  upon  ?  What 
did  he  do  while  in  a  council  of  officers  ? 

35.  What  was  his  next  proceeding  ? 

36.  In  what  manner  was  the  Little  Parliament  assembled  ?  What  is 
Mid  of  it* 


ENGLAND.  387 

37.  Wliat  titlo  dill  CromwoU  assume  at  the  dissolution  of  tho  Little 
Parliament?     Wliat  is  fui'tlicr  related  of  him  ? 

38.  How  did  he  administer  the  j,'oveniment  ?  "Wliat  Ls  said  of  his  reigu 
and  the  state  of  En<^laiul  ?     How  did  he  pass  the  latter  part  of  lifel 

39.  What  is  said  of  his  talents  and  career  ? 

40.  To  what  did  he  owe  his  elevation  1  Wliat  i.s  said  of  the  officers 
and  soldiers  ?  How  did  Cromwell  manage  while  toiling  up  the  ascent 
to  greatness  ? 

41.  To  what  has  the  name  of  Cromwell  heen  subjected?  What  is 
said  of  the  treatment  he  has  received  from  history  ?     Why  is  it  so  ? 

42.  What  is  said  of  his  private  character  ? 

43.  What  is  said  of  Richard  Cromwell  ?  What  was  done  by  Grcneral 
Monk?     When  was  Charles  II.  restored? 

44.  How  did  the  nation  suller  him  to  assume  the  crown?  What  do 
his  reign  and  that  of  James  II.  exhibit?     What  is  said  of  the  new  king? 

45.  Wliat  change  now  took  place?  What  measures  were  adopted 
respecting  the  regicides  ?  What  principles  and  doctrines  came  in  vogue  ? 
What  acts  were  passed  respecting  religion  ? 

4G.  What  was  done  with  Dunkirk?  With  what  nation  did  Charles 
engage  in  war  ?     What  calamities  visited  London  ? 

47.  Why  did  the  government  become  unpopular?  On  whom  was 
the  odium  cast  ?  What  were  the  five  ministers,  who  conducted  the 
government  after  Clarendon  was  banished,  tenned  ? 

48.  What  was  the  religion  of  Chaides  and  James  ?  For  what  purpose 
did  Charles  receive  a  pension  from  Louis  XIV.  of  France?  What  is  said 
of  the  latter  part  of  Charles's  reign  ? 

49.  Wliose  execution  was  occasioned  by  the  pretended  Popish  Plot? 
What  is  said  of  the  Rye-House  Plot  ? 

50.  What  was  the  character  of  the  court?  How  was  the  reign  chax- 
acterized  ?     What  is  said  of  Charles  11.  ? 

51.  What  is  said  of  James  II.  and  his  reign?  What  course  did  he 
take  on  assuming  the  government?  Wlio  were  his  counsellors,  and 
what  did  he  attempt  to  do  ? 

52.  What  is  related  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  ?  How  were  those 
who  favored  him  treated  ?     Wliat  is  related  of  Jeffreys  ? 

53.  How  did  James  succeed  in  his  designs?  What  act  of  his  roused 
the  general  indignation?  Who  was  invited  to  England  to  assume  the 
government  ? 

54.  What  followed  ?  What  was  done  by  the  Convention-Parliament  ? 
What  is  this  event  styled? 

55.  What  was  now  done  respecting  the  British  constitution?  What 
regulations  were  made  respecting  religion  ?  What  are  some  of  the  most 
important  articles  in  the  declaration  of  the  rights  of  the  subject? 

56.  What  is  related  of  Archbishop  Bancroft,  &c.?  Wliat  were  they 
fityled  ? 

57.  Wliat  course  did  Ireland  adopt?  Wlierc  was  James  defeated  by 
William?     What  naval  battle  was  fought?     What  peace  followed ? 

58.  What  is  said  of  William  ?     What  is  said  of  Mary  his  queen  ? 

59.  "Who  succeeded  WillLam  ?  What  is  said  of  Anne  ?  For  what  Araa 
her  reign  distinguished  ? 

60.  Wliat  states  united  in  an  alliance  against  France?  Who  were  the 
commanders  of  the  allied  anny  ?  What  victories  did  the  Allies  gain  1 
When  was  the  war  terminated  ? 

61.  What  is  said  of  the  constitutional  union  between  England  and 
Scotland  ? 

62.  When  did  the  party  names  of  Whigs  and  Tories  first  become 
common  ?  What  is  said  of  the  two  parties  ?  Who  advocated  the  ac- 
cession of  William  and  Mary  1  What  is  said  of  tho  Btate  of  parties 
daring  the  reign  of  Anne  ? 


ENGLAND. 


Section  IX. 

1 .  Who  succeeded  Anne  ?  What  is  said  of  Greorge  I.  ?  To  what  are 
some  faults  in  his  goveruraent  attributed  ? 

2.  Wliat  change  took  place  in  the  names  of  the  two  parties  1  Who  wero 
favored  by  George  ?     Wliat  part  did  the  Tories  take  t 

3.  What  is  related  of  the  Soutli-Sea  Scheme? 

4.  What  is  said  of  George  II.,  and  of  the  court  1  What  is  said  of  LL* 
partialities  in  favor  of  his  continental  dominions  1 

5.  What  is  related  of  Sir  Ilobert  Walpole  1 

6.  What  is  said  of  the  military  operations  of  this  reign  ?  Wlio  succeeded 
to  the  dominions  of  Charles  VI.,  emperor  of  Germany  ?  Who  asserted 
his  claim  to  the  throne  ? 

7.  To  what  war  did  this  give  rise  ?  What  battle  did  the  Allies  gain,  and 
in  what  were  they  routed  ?     How  was  the  contest  decided  ? 

8.  What  took  place  in  Britain  wliiie  George  II.  was  on  the  Continent  ? 
Where  did  the  Pretender  defeat  the  royal  forces  ?  Where  was  he  finally 
defeated  ? 

9.  What  advantages  did  the  British  gain  over  the  French  in  America  ? 
By  what  were  they  followed  ? 

10.  What  is  said  of  Great  Britain  during  the  reign  of  George  U.  ?  What 
is  said  respecting  the  national  debt  1 

11.  In  what  circumstances  did  Greorge  III.  commence  his  reign?  How 
was  the  war  with  France  closed  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  William  Pitt  ?  What  was  the  consequence  of  tlie 
oppressive  measures  respecting  the  American  Colonies  ? 

13.  Wliat  were  the  other  most  important  events  during  the  reign  of 
George  III.  ? 

14.  What  is  said  of  the  French  revolution?  What  course  did  the  gov- 
ernment of  Great  Britain  take  ? 

1.5.  Who  devised  the  system  of  operations?  What  is  said  of  this  war? 
What  were  some  of  the  victories  gained  by  the  British  ? 

1 6.  What  is  said  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  ?  What  was  his  condition 
during  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  ?     What  is  said  of  George  III.  ? 

17.  By  whom  was  George  III.  succeeded  ?  What  is 'said  of  his  character 
and  his  course  ? 

18.  What  bUl  was  introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords  ?  What  was  the 
result  ? 

19.  What  is  stated  in  relation  to  the  Greeks  ? 

20.  What  is  said  of  the  Corporation  and  Test  Act  ?  By  what  was  this 
repeal  followed  ?  What  was  the  effect  ?  What  other  improvements  in  the 
laws  are  mentioned  ? 

21.  By  whom  was  George  IV.  succeeded  ?  What  took  place  soon  after 
his  accession  ?  What  was  the  state  of  feeling  in  England  ?  What  subject 
had  been  long  agitated  in  England  ?  What  was  done  by  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  ?     What  was  the  consequence  ?  . 

22.  What  was  done  by  Lord  John  Russell  ?  What  was  the  result  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  measure  ? 

23.  What  important  acts  were  passed  by  the  first  reformed  parliament  ? 

24.  By  whom  was  William  IV.  succeeded  ? 


Chronological  Table  of  the  History  op  England.  —  No.  1. 

Who  was  the  first  king  of  the  Saxon  Family  ?  Who  were  the  Danish 
kings  ?  Wiio  was  the  first  of  the  Norman  Family  ?  The  Plantagenet '' 
The  Branch  of  Lancaster  ?     The  Branch  of  York  ? 


EUROPEAN  STATES  389 

When  did  Egbert  1)egiii  to  reign  ?  Canute  ?  William  the  Conqueror  ? 
Henry  II.  ?     Edward  HI.  ?     Henry  V.  ? 

What  is  said  of  Egbert  or  his  reign  ?  Alfred  ?  William  the  Conqueror  ? 
fee. 


Chronological  Table  of  the  History  of  England. — No.  2. 

What  kings  were  of  the  House  of  Tudor  ?     Stuart  1    Brunswick  1 
When  did  Henry  VII.  begin  to  reign  ?    Henry  VIII.?    Edward  VI.?  &c. 
How  long  did  Henry  VII.  reign  ?     Henry  VIH.  ?     Edward  VI.  ?  &c. 
What  is  said  respecting  Henry  VII.  or  his  reign?    Henry  VIIL ?  &c. 


Chronological  Table  of  English  Literature. 

What  statesmen  and  commanders  flomished  in  the  16th  century  ?     The 
17th?  &c. 
What  poets  flourished  in  the  1 6th  century  ?   What  divines  ?    The  17th  « 


EUROPEAN  STATES. 
Scotland. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  pretensions  of  Scotland  to  a  regular  succession  of 
kings  from  the  time  of  Alexander  tlie  Great  ?  What  were  the  principal 
tribes  that  anciently  inhabited  Scotland  ?  Who  was  the  first  king  of  all 
Scotland  ? 

2.  In  whose  reign  did  the  most  memorable  contests  happen  between 
Scotland  and  the  kings  of  England  ?  Who  were  Edward's  antagonists  ? 
In  what  battle  did  Robert  Bruce  defeat  the  English  ? 

3.  Wliat  took  place  in  1603  ?    What  in  1706  "^ 


Germany. 

i.  Into  what  three  monarchies  was  the  Empire  of  the  West  divided  in 
843  ?  What  afterwards  took  place  ?  What  two  sovereigns  governed  Ger- 
many in  the  1 0th  century  ? 

2.  For  what  is  the  reign  of  Heniy  IV.  remarkable  ?  To  what  factions 
did  tlie  election  of  Conrad  III.  give  rise  ?  To  whom  were  the  Ghibelincs, 
and  to  whom  tlie  Guelphs  attached  ? 

3.  By  what  was  the  reign  of  Frederick  Barbarossa  signalized  ?  By  what 
was  the  reign  of  Conrad  IV.  followed  ?  Wlio  was  elected  emperor  after 
the  Great  Inten-egnum  ? 

4.  AVhat  is  said  of  the  princijial  events  in  the  history  of  the  latter  em- 
perors of  the  Franconian  line  and  those  of  the  Swabian  line  ?  What  were 
the  grounds  of  these  contests  ? 

5.  What  quarrel  took  jilace  between  Louis  IV.  and  Pope  John  XXII.  ? 
What  was  detennined  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  ? 

6.  For  what  is  the  reign  of  Sigismund  memorable  ?  Who  were  burnt 
by  the  Council  of  Constance  ?  Wliat  was  done  by  the  adherents  of  Huss 
and  Jerome  in  Bohemia  ? 

7.  Wliat  is  related  of  Maximilian  I.  ? 

8.  What  empei-or  was  the  most  jiowcrful  sovereign  of  his  age?  What  is 
related  of  Charles  V.  ?     "VVliat  is  said  of  the  Reformation  ? 

33* 


390  EUROPEAN  STATES. 

9.  By  what  were  the  reigns  of  Ferdinand  II.  and  Ferdinand  III.  signal' 
ized  1     What  account  is  jj;ivcn  of  tliis  war  ?     How  did  it  issue  1 

10.  Wliat  took  phice  on  the  death  of  Charles  VI.  1     How  was  the  war 
of  the  Austrian  Succession  terminated  ? 

11.  When  and  how  did  the  German  empire  terminate? 

12.  When  was  the  imperial  government  hereditary  ?     How  was  it  after- 
wards ?     What  was  the  mode  of  election  at  lirst  ?     How  afterwards  1 

1.3.  What  took  place  in  1848  ? 


Austria. 

1.  When  was  Austria  erected  into  an  empire  1     What  is  said  of  it  1 

2.  WTiat  effect  did  the  French  revolution  of  1848  produce  at  Vienna? 
What  was  done  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  ? 

3.  What  took  place  in  the  Austrian  dominions  in  Italy  ? 

4.  What  is  related  respecting  Hungary? 

5.  Wliat  was  done  by  the  emperor  of  Kussia  ?     What  was  the  issue  1 

6.  What  measure  was  taken  by  the  emperor  of  Austria  in  1849  ? 


Spain. 

1.  By  whom  was  Spain  invaded  in  the  5th  century?  What  took  place 
in  the  8th  century  ? 

2.  Wliat  was  done  by  the  Moors  ?  What  was  accomplished  by  Abder- 
rahman  in  755  ?     What  is  said  of  the  Moorish  states  ? 

3.  What  course  did  the  Gothic  or  Christian  forces  pursue  ?  "What  does 
the  history  of  Spain  present  ? 

4.  AVhat  Christian  kingdoms  were  formed  ?  How  did  the  kingdoms  of 
Castile,  Leon,  and  Arragon  become  united  ? 

5.  "\Vliat  is  said  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  ? 

6.  "What  is  said  of  Spain  during  the  reigns  of  Charles  I.  and  Philip  11.  ? 
What  has  since  taken  place  ?  When  was  the  most  flourishing  period  of 
Spanish  literature  ? 

7.  TMiat  took  place  in  1808  ?     "Wliat  was  the  result  ? 

8.  WTiat  took  place  in  relation  to  Spain  from  1811  to  1821  ?  What  has 
been  the  condition  of  Spain  since  ? 


POETUGAL. 

1.  "What  is  related  of  the  early  history  of  Portugal  ? 

2.  How  was  Henrv-,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  rewarded  for  his  services  to  Al- 
phonso,  king  of  Castile  ?  What  did  his  son  and  successor  Alphonso  ac- 
complish ? 

S.  For  what  is  the  reign  of  John  I.  famous  ? 

4.  For  what  were  the  reigns  of  John  II.  and  Emanuel  distinguished  ? 
"What  was  done  during  their  reigns  ?  What  took  place  with  respect  to 
trade  after  the  discovery  of  a  passage  to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  ?    "Who  first  shared  with  the  Portuguese  the  navigation  of  the  Cape  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  the  period  from  John  I.  to  the  conquest  of  Portugal 
by  Philip  II.  of  Spain? 

6.  What  took  place  in  1580  ?     When  were  the  Spaniards  expelled  ? 

7.  "What  is  said  of  the  discovery  and  colonization  of  Brazil  ? 

8.  What  took  place  in  1807  ?  'What  measure  was  adopted  with  respect 
to  Brazil  ?     AVhat  happened  in  1826  ? 


EUROPEAN  STATES.  391 


Tub  Netherlands. 

1.  Wliat  was  the  situation  of  the  Netlierlands  in  the  Middle  Ages  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  country  in  the  l.'Jth  century  1 

2.  To  whom  did  Charles  V.  resign-these  provinces  1    What  afterwards 
took  place  re.si)ectiiig  thcjn  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  prosperity  of  the  Dutch  Provinces  ? 

4.  What  measure  was  adopted  in  relation  to  the  Seventeen  Provinces  hy 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  '!     llow  long  did  this  union  last? 

5.  What  tooli  place  in  1830 1     What  was  the  result  1 


Poland. 

1.  When  and  by  whom  was  Christianity  introduced  into  Poland  ?     Wlicn 
was  tlie  monarchy  in  its  most  flourishing  state "? 

2.  What  is  related  of  Casimir  III.  i     What  took  place  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  Uth  century? 

3.  Under  wliose  reign  did  the  kingdom  rise  to  its  greatest  height  1     What 
took  place  afterwards  '( 

4.  Hy  whom  and  when  was  Poland  conquered  and  partitioned  ? 

5.  What  was  done  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit  in  1807  1    What  in  1815  1 

6.  What  is  said  of  the  Grand  Duke  Constantine  ?     What  took  place  in 
1830? 

7.  What  is  related  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas  ? 


Sweden. 

1.  Wliat  did  Sweden  and  Noi-way  anciently  fonn  ?     What  took  place  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  14th  century  ?     What  followed  ? 

2.  What  is  related  of  Gustavus  Vasa  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  his  reign  ? 

4.  Wliat  is  said  of  Charles  XII.  ?     What  was  his  career? 

5.  What  is  related  of  Gustavus  I V.  ?    By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?    By 
what  has  tiie  loss  of  Finland  been  rcjjaired  ? 

6.  What  took  place  on  the  death  of  Charles  XIII.  ? 


Denmark. 

1 .  To  whom  did  the  crown  of  Denmark  fall  in  1448  ?     What  is  said 

respecting  the  monarchy  ? 

2.  With  M'hom  was  Denmark  engaged  in  war  in  the  beginning  of  tlie 
18th  century  ?     How  long  afterwards  did  tlie  country  enjoy  peace  ; 

3.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  kingdom  during  the  reigns  of  Cln-istian 
VI.  and  Frederick  V.  ?     By  what  statesman  was  the  latter  assisted  ? 

4.  Whom  did  Christian  VII.  marry  ?     ^Vliat  is  said  of  Matilda  ? 

.5.  By  whom  was  Copenhagen  attacked  in  1801 ''.  What  was  the  pre- 
tence for  bombarding  it  in  1807  ?  How  large  a  licet  was  surrendered  to  the 
British  ? 

6.  What  took  place  in  1848  ? 


Prussia. 

1 .  By  whom  was  tlie  foundation  of  Prussian  greatness  laid  ?    What  is 
related  of  his  successor  ? 


392  EUROPEAN  STATES. 

2.  Wliat  is  said  of  Frederick  U.  ? 

3.  Against  whom  did  Frederick  declare  war  in  1756?  How  was  tho 
contest  carried  on,  and  how  terminated  ?  What  was  the  only  gainful  result 
of  this  sanguinary  struggle  ? 

4.  Wliat  did  Frederick  afterwards  do  1    What  is  said  of  him  ? 

5.  "What  did  the  king  of  Pmssia  lose  by  war  with  the  French  ?  What 
course  did  he  take  in  1813  t  What  did  he  gain  by  tho  treaty  of  Vienna? 
What  is  said  of  the  condition  of  Prussia  since  ?     ' 

6.  By  whom  was  Frederick  William  succeeded'?  How  has  his  reign 
been  characterized  1    What  has  been  done  1 


KussiA. 

1 .  What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  Russia  ?  What  is  related  of  Peter 
the  Great  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  Catharine  H.  ?  What  further  is  related  of  her  char- 
acter and  exploits  1 

3.  By  whom  was  Catharine  succeeded?    What  is  said  of  Alexander? 

4.  By  what  has  the  reign  of  Nicholas  been  distinguished  ?  When  was 
the  war  against  Turkey  declared  ?  What  is  related  of  it,  and  how  did  it 
terminate  ? 

5.  What  took  place  in  1830  ?    What  followed  ? 

G.  What  was  done  by  the  emperor  in  1848  ?    What  is  said  of  Russia? 


Rome. 

1.  When  did  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  commence  ?  When  did  it 
attain  its  zenith  ? 

2.  Wliat  is  said  of  the  first  half  of  the  16th  century  ?  What  is  related 
of  Popes  Julius  n.  and  Leo  X.  ?  Wliat  took  place  during  the  pontificate  of 
the  latter  ?     How  has  the  power  of  the  pope  since  been  diminished  ? 

3.  What  was  done  by  Bonaparte  in  1809  ?  What  was  done  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  Roman  government  ?     What  of  Pius  IX.  ? 

5.  Wliat  took  place  at  Rome  after  the  French  revolution  of  1848 1 
G.  Wliat  was  accomplished  at  Rome  by  the  French  ? 


TUKKET. 

1.  What  are  the  Turks  ?  What  is  the  first  notice  of  them  in  history  1 
By  whom  were  their  dominions  united  ? 

2.  Wluvt  conquest  was  made  by  Amurath  ?  Wliat  by  Bajazet  ?  What 
by  Mahomet  II.  ? 

3.  IIow  did  the  Turks  afterwards  succeed?  What  countries  were  con- 
qucvi'd  by  Selim  ?  What  is  said  of  the  reign  and  exploits  of  Solyman  tlio 
Mugnificcnt  ? 

4.  Witli  whom  have  the  Turks  been  engaged  in  war  since  the  time  of 
Sol\Tnan  ? 

.5.  By  what  has  the  Turkish  power  been  Lately  weakened? 
6.  "\Vlicn  did  the  Greeks  revolt  1     What  took  place  afterwards  ?     What 
was  done  in  1828  and  1832  ? 


AMERICA.  893 


SOVEEEIGNS    OF    GERMANY,    SpAIN,    SwEDEN,  PRUSSIA,   AND    RuSSIA. 

When  did  Charles  V.  of  Germany  begin  to  reign  ?  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
lieUa  of  Spain  ?  Gustavus  Vi\sa,  of  Sweden?  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia? 
Peter  I.  of  Russia  ?     Francis  of  Austria  ? 

Who  were  the  emperors  of  Austria  in  the  16th  century,  &c. 


Takle  of  Italian,  French,  Spanish,  German,  &c.,  Literature. 

What  distinguished  men  did  Italy  produce  in  the  14th  century  ?  In  the 
15th?  &c. 

Remarks  on  the  Table. 

What  is  said  of  Italy  respecting  the  revival  of  learning?  Who  wer« 
some  of  the  distinguished  men  ? 

"What  is  said  of  France  ?  What  was  the  most  brilliant  period  of  French 
literature  ?  Who  were  some  of  the  most  eminent  men  ?  What  is  relate«\ 
of  Spain  ?     Germany  ?     Sweden  ?    Holland  ? 


AMERICA. 

1.  Wliat  is  said  of  the  discovery  of  America  ?  What  were  some  of  the 
effects  of  this  discoveiy  ? 

2.  To  whom  is  the  world  indebted  for  this  discovery  ?  What  is  related 
of  Columbus  ? 

3.  What  did  he  conceive  was  necessary  in  order  to  complete  the  balance 
of  the  terraqueous  globe  ? 

4.  How  was  the  merchandise  of  India  conveyed  to  Europe  before  the 
passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good  I'|ope  was  known  ?  For  what  purpose 
did  Columbus  undertake  his  voyage  of  discovery  ? 

5.  To  whom  did  he  apply  in  succession  for  assistance  ?  From  whom 
did  he  gain  some  favor  after  seven  years'  solicitation  ?  With  what  was  he 
provided  for  the  expedition  ?     Wliat  appointment  did  he  obtain  ? 

6.  From  what  place  and  when  did  Ik;  snil  1     How  did  he  proceed  ? 

7.  What  circumstance  alarmed  both  bini  and  his  men?  How  did  he 
manage  ?  What  took  place  thii-ty  days  after  ?  How  far  was  he  compelled 
to  yield  to  his  (tcw  ? 

8.  When  did  Columbus  first  discover  a  light  ?  Wliat  satisfaction  did 
the  crew  now  make  to  Columbus  ? 

9.  Wliat  island  was  first  discovered  ?  What  islands  were  discovered 
afterwards  1     V/hy  did  he  name  these  islands  the  West  Indies  1 

10.  What  did  he  procure  before  he  set  sail  for  Spain  ?  What  happened 
ditring  the  voyage  ?  What  method  did  he  take  to  preserve  an  account  of 
his  discovery  ?  What  favorable  occurrence  took  place  ?  Whither  did  he 
proceed  ? 

11.  When  did  Columbus  discover  the  continent  of  South  America? 
■y^liat  was  caused  by  bis  successes  ?  What  was  done  to  Columbus  ?  What 
did  h3  say  when  the  captain  offered  to  release  him  from  his  fetters  ? 

12.'  What  did  he  afterwards  do  with  his  fetters  ? 

13.  Wliat  was  the  feeling  upon  Columbus's  arriving  thus  in  Spain?  How 
was  he  treated  ? 

14.  How  did  Columbus  obtain  command  over  the  Indians  in  his  fourth 
voyage  ?  What  afterwards  happened  to  liim  ?  What  is  said  of  his  funeral  1 
What  inscription  was  engraved  on  his  tomb  ? 


394  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

15.  By  whom  was  Columbus  deprived  of  the  honor  of  giving  his  name 
to  the  continent  1  What  did  Americus  claim  1  What  is  said  of  this  act 
of  injustice  ? 

16.  Who  first  sailed  to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope?  What  is 
said  of  this  enterprise  ?     What  is  related  of  Magellan  ? 

17.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  continent  of  North  America  first  dis- 
covered 1 

18.  What  land  was  first  seen  ?  Which  way  did  they  proceed?  In  what 
manner  did  they  take  possession  of  the  countiy  ? 

1 9.  When  and  with  what  force  did  Cortes  invade  Mexico  1  How  ^cre 
his  men  armed  1     With  what  else  was  he  furnished  1 

20.  What  was  his  first  course  ?  How  was  he  received  by  Montezuma  ? 
How  did  Cortes  requite  his  hospitality  f     What  followed  ? 

21.  What  assistance  did  Cortes  obtain?  What  was  the  success  of  the 
Spaniards  ? 

22.  When  did  the  Spaniards  form  a  settlement  at  Panama  ?  Witli  what 
force  did  Pizarro  sail  from  this  place  in  order  to  conquer  Peru  T 

2.3.  In  what  manner  did  he  proceed  with  the  Inca  Atabalipa  ? 

24.  What  did  Atabalipa  do  in  order  to  procure  his  release  ?  To  what 
did  this  treasure  amount,  and  what  was  done  with  it  ?  What  was  then 
done  to  the  inca  ? 

25.  How  did  the  Spanish  chiefs  then  proceed  ?    What  followed  ? 

26.  What  is  said  of  the  Peruvians  and  Mexicans  ?  What  arts  did  they 
understand  ?  In  what  did  the  Peruvians  excel  ?  What  is  said  of  their 
religion  ? 

27.  What  was  done,  in  1524,  by  Francis  I.  of  France  ?  What  is  related 
of  James  Cartier? 

28.  What  enterprise  was  performed  by  Sir  Walter  Ealeigh  ?  What 
took  place  on  his  return  to  England  ? 

29.  What  Englishmen  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  settle  Virginia  ? 
.30.  By  what  right  did  Europeans  take  possession  of  the  parts  of  America 

which  they  visited  ?     How  were  the  original  inhabitants  treated  ?     Wlio 
set  this  example  ?     How  did  he  pi-oceed  ? 

31.  What  was  done  by  the  popes?  What  was  held  out  as  the  cliief 
reason  for  taking  possession  of  America  ?  Of  what  was  this  made  the 
pretext  ? 

32.  By  what  were  the  Spaniards  stimulated  ?  What  is  said  of  their 
passion  for  gold  ?     How  were  the  Indians  treated  ?    What  was  the  result  ? 

33.  By  whom  was  this  cruelty  condemned  ?  Where  did  the  colonists 
look  for  a  supply  of  laborers  ?     \Vhat  is  said  of  them  ? 

34.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  first  importation  of  negroes  from  Africa 
made  ?     What  has  been  since  done  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 
Section  I. 

1 .  To  what  are  nations  inclined  to  lay  claim  ?  How  is  it  with  regard  to 
t\\e  people  of  this  country  ?  What  is  said  of  the  early  history  and  growth 
of  this  country  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  first  settlers,  and  of  what  were  they  the  advocates  ? 
What  circumstances  have  favored  their  growth  ?  With  whom  have  their 
political  and  commercial  relations  connected  them  ? 

3.  In  what  did  the  colonization  of  this  country  originate?  What  Colonies 
were  peopled  by  these  causes  ? 

4.  What  were  their  early  condition  and  sufferings  ?  What  was  the  ul- 
timate issue  1 


THE  UNITED  STATES.  395 

5.  When  did  the  crown  of  England  grant  the  charter  under  which  the 
first  effectual  English.scttlcments  were  made  in  North  America?  What 
two  companies  were  constituted  '.     What  territories  were  assigned  to  them  1 

6.  Wlicn  and  by  whom  was  tlie  first  effectual  attempt  to  form  a  settle- 
ment ?     Where  was  it  begun  ?     How  was  the  goveniment  administered  1 

7.  Wlio  was  the  first  president?  Who  was  chosen  the  second  yearl 
What  is  related  of  Smith  ? 

8.  In  wliat  contests  were  the  colonists  involved  ?  What  provocations  had 
Ihe  Indians  before  received  1 

9.  AVliat  happened  to  Captain  Smith  ?   Before  what  chief  was  he  carried  ? 

10.  What  measures  were  taken  respecting  him  ?  By  whose  influence 
was  he  delivered  1 

11.  What  service  did  Pocahontas,  two  years  after,  perform  for  the  colo- 
nists ?     What  is  further  related  of  her  ? 

12.  What  diminution  did  the  colonists  suffer  in  a  few  months  ?  Wliat 
did  their  number  amount  to  at  the  end  of  the  year  ? 

1.3.  To  what  sufferings  were  the  colonists  afterwards  subjected  1 

14.  What  was  the  effect  of  this  famine  ?  What  course  did  those  who 
survived  it,  take  ?    What  induced  them  to  remain  ? 

1 5.  What  was  the  number  of  colonists  at  the  end  of  twelve  years  ?  What 
addition  was  made  in  1619  ■?  What  is  said  of  the  planters  ?  What  method 
was  adopted  for  supplying  them  with  wives  ?  "VVhat  price  was  paid  for  a 
wife  1     Wliat  was  the  commencement  of  slaverj'  ? 

16.  What  plot  was  concerted  against  the  colonists  in  1622 1  How  many 
of  them  were  put  to  death  ?  Wh.at  calamities  followed  the  massacre  1 
What  number  of  inhabitants  did  the  colony  contain  in  1624  ? 

17.  By  what  other  circumstances  did  the  colony  suffer?  What  is  said 
of  Sir  William  Berkeley  and  his  administration  ?  To  what  did  the  restric- 
tions on  the  trade  of  the  colony  give  rise  ?     Wliat  was  the  consequence  ? 

18.  What  was  the  population  in  1660?  What  was  the  increase  in  the 
28  succeeding  years  ?  With  what  views  did  the  first  adventui-ers  come  ? 
To  what  did  they  turn  their  attention  in  1616  ?  What  use  was  made  of 
tobacco  ? 

19.  By  whom  and  when  was  Hudson's  River  discovered  ?  When  and 
where  were  the  first  permanent  settlements  made  by  the  Dutch  ?  What 
were  the  country  and  the  settlement  on  Manhattan  Island  named  ? 

20.  Who  were  the  three  successive  Dutch  governors  ?  To  what  did  tlie 
extension  of  the  English  settlements  give  rise  ? 

21.  To  whom  did  Charles  11.  of  England  grant  the  country?  What 
afterwards  took  place  ? 

22.  Where  di(i  the  Plymouth  Company  commence  an  unsuccessful  set- 
tlement ?  By  whom  was  the  name  of  the  countiy  changed  ?  To  whom 
was  a  patent  granted  by  King  James  ?  Between  what  degrees  of  latitude 
did  the  country  granted  lie  ? 

2.3.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  first  permanent  settlement  begun  in 
New  England  ?  Why  were  they  called  Puritans  ?  Of  whose  congregation 
did  they  form  a  part  ? 

24.  To  what  country  had  they  before  fled  ?  Why  did  they  come  to  Amer- 
ica ?     What  is  said  of  the  principle  of  toleration  at  this  period  ? 

2,5.  To  what  river  did  they  propose  to  sail  ?  What  was  the  first  land 
that  they  discovered  ?     When  did  they  land  at  Plymouth  ? 

26.  To  what  sufferings  were  they  subjected  ? 

27.  What  kind  of  government  did  they  institute?  Who  were  the  first 
two  governors  ?  What  articles  of  food  did  they  raise  ?  How  was  their 
property  for  several  years  held  ? 

28.  What  method  did  they  adopt  to  protect  themselves  against  the  In- 
dians ?  What  is  related  of  Samoset  ?  What  of  Massasoit  ?  How  long 
Was  the  treaty  made  with  him  observed  1 


396  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

29.  When  and  by  whom  \vas  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  begun  1 
By  whom  were  Boston  and  other  i)Kaces  near  it  first  settled  1 

30.  What  is  mentioned  respecting  the  first  settlements  in  New  Hamp- 
shire ■?     How  long  did  they  continue  annexed  to  Massachusetts  ? 

3 1 .  WTicn  and  where  was  the  Colony  of  Connecticut  commenced  ?  The 
Colony  of  New  Haven  ?     Wlien  were  these  united  1 

32.  When,  where,  and  by  whom  was  the  settlement  of  Rhode  Island 
commenced "? 

33.  What  is  said  of  the  attention  of  the  colonists  to  religion  and  learning  1 
How  long  after  the  first  settlement  of  Massachusetts  Bay  was  it  before  Har- 
vard College  was  founded  ? 

34.  For  what  virtues  were  the  colonists  distinguished  ? 

35  On  what  subjects  were  their  views  narrow  1  What  is  related  of  their 
principles  and  habits. 

36.  In  what  way  did  the  colonists  get  possession  of  the  land  1  How  had 
the  Indians  been  treated  by  Europeans  1 

37.  What  is  related  of  Captain  Standish  and  of  Mr.  Robinson  ?  What 
Colonies  suffered  little  from  the  Indians  for  many  years  ?  What  is  related 
respecting  the  Colony  of  Connecticut  ?    What  was  the  issue  of  this  contest  ? 

38.  What  measure  did  the  four  Colonies  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  Ply- 
mouth, Connecticut,  and  New  Haven,  adopt  to  promote  their  security  and 
welfare  ?  How  many  delegates  were  elected  by  each  ?  What  is  said  of 
this  union  ? 

39.  What  was  the  most  destructive  Indian  war  in  which  the  Colonies 
were  ever  engaged  1     What  is  said  of  Philip  ? 

40.  What  did  the  Indians  determine  to  do  1    What  measure  was  adopted  ? 

41.  What  was  the  immediate  cause  of  war  ?     What  next  took  place  f 

42.  How  were  hostilities  conducted  ?  "What  is  the  gx-eatest  battle  called  ? 
Where  was  it  fought  ?  Wlio  commanded  the  colonists  ?  What  was  the 
loss  on  each  side  1 

43.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Indians  after  this  defeat?  What 
happened  to  Philip  ?  What  is  said  of  his  death  ?  In  what  wai-s  were  the 
colonists  afterwards  annoyed  by  the  Indians  ? 

44.  To  what  was  the  English  population  of  these  Colonies  at  this  time 
computed  to  amount "?  What  losses  were  sustained  ?  How  many  build- 
ings and  towns  were  desti'oyed  1 

45.  Who  was  the  founder  of  Marj-land  1  "VSTiere  did  he  first  project  a 
settlement  1  From  whom  was  the  country  named  1  By  whom  was  Lord 
Baltimore  succeeded  7 

46.  Who  was  appointed  the  first  governor?  When  and  where  did  he 
begin  a  settlement  ?     Wliat  measures  were  pursued  ? 

47.  To  whom  was  the  country  of  Pennsylvania  granted  ?  Why  was  it 
granted  to  Penn  1     "When  and  with  whom  did  he  an-ive  ? 

48.  What  did  he  make  the  basis  of  his  institiitions  ?  How  did  he  man 
age  in  his  intercourse  with  the  Indians  1 

49.  How  long  were  the  treaties  preserved  inviolate  ? 

50.  "What  is  said  of  the  prosperity  of  this  colony  1  What  inducements 
were  held  out  to  settlers  ? 

51.  "Wliat  were  the  first  civil  communities  in  which  the  free  toleration  of 
religion  was  recognized  ? 

Section  II. 

1.  "What  soTereigns  had  hitherto  occupied  the  throne  of  England  since 
the  commencement  of  the  Colonies  ?  "WTiat  was  the  effect  of  their  princi- 
ples ■?     With  what  were  the  Colonies  alarmed  ? 

2.  "What  was  done  by  Edward  Randolph  in  order  to  destroy  the  libertiei 
of  New  England  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATE3.  397 

3.  Who  was  appointed  by  James  II.  povcmqr  of  New  England  ?  What 
measure  did  Sir  Kdinuiid  Andros  adojjt'?  What  was  done  with  the  char 
ters  ?     How  did  Sir  Edmund  then  jjroceed  ? 

4.  What  took  place  in  Ent,fl:ind  at  this  time  1  How  was  the  news  of  the 
Eevohition  of  1 G88  received  in  this  country  1  What  measures  were  adopted 
by  the  Colonies  '? 

5.  What  was  done  with  regard  to  the  Colonies  of  Massachusetts  Bay  and 
riymouth  ; 

().  How  were  the  magistrates  midcr  the  old  cliarter  elected?  Wliat 
change  was  made  by  tiie  new  charter  ?  Who  was  appointed  the  first  gov- 
crnoi  ! 

7.  'J'o  what  evils  did  the  revolution  in  England  subject  the  Colonics  ? 
How  hnig  did  tlie  war  during  the  reign  of  William  last?  How  long  did 
that  during  the  reign  of  Anne  continue? 

8.  How  much  of  the  time,  for  25  years  preceding  the  peace  of  Utrecht, 
had  the  country  been  exempted  from  war  ?  What  number  of  the  inhabit- 
ants were  in  actual  seiTice  ?  What  was  the  condition  of  the  rest  ?  What 
was  the  state  of  the  country  ?  , 

9.  How  many  young  men,  belonging  to  New  England  and  New  York, 
are  supposed  to  have  been  lost  in  the  public  service  ? 

10.  When  did  another  war  break  out  between  Great  Britain  and  Erance  ? 
By  what  was  tliis  war  rendered  memorable  in  America  i  What  is  said  of 
Louisburg  ? 

11.  How  many  troops  had  General  Pepperell  ?  By  whom  was  he  joined  ? 
What  was  the  issue  ? 

12.  What  effect  did  the  news  of  this  achievement  of  the  Colonies  have 
on  the  government  of  France  ?  What  armament  was  sent  by  the  French 
to  America  ?     What  was  the  object  of  it  ? 

13.  What  disasters  happened  to  this  fleet? 

14.  What  became  of  the  ships  that  remained  ?  What  was  done  with 
Louisburg  at  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ? 

15.  Who  claimed  the  country  watered  by  the  Mississippi  and  its  tribu 
taries  ?  What  measures  did  the  French  take  with  regard  to  it,  in  the  sue 
ceeding  period  of  peace  ? 

16.  What  grant  was  obtained  by  the  Ohio  Company  ?  What  course  did 
the  French  take  with  respect  to  the  traders  ? 

17 /What  measures  were  adopted  by  the  Company  and  by  the  Colony  of 
Virginia  ?     Who  was  sent  to  the  French  commandant  ? 

18.  What  course  was  taken  by  the  British  government?  'What warlike 
preparations  were  made  ? 

19.  On  what  expedition  was  General  Braddock  sent?  Wliat  did  his 
force  amount  to  ?  AVliat  is  said  of  Braddock  and  his  fate  ?  Wliat  loss 
was  sustained  ?     What  is  related  of  Washington  ? 

20.  By  whom  and  where  was  General  Johnson  met  in  his  expedition 
against  Crown  Point  ?  What  was  the  issue  ?  What  is  said  of  the  expedi- 
tion against  Niagara  and  Fort  Frontcnae  ? 

21.  How  long  was  the  war  carried  on  before  a  formal  declaration  mms 
made?  Who  succeeded  Diesljau?  Who  had  the  chief  command  of  ths 
English  troops  ?  What  is  said  of  the  commanders,  and  of  the  campaign  ? 
By  whose  means  was  a  favorable  change  effected  ? 

22.  What  measure  was  pursued  by  Mr.  Pitt  ?  What  number  of  men 
was  brought  into  the  service  ?  What  three  expeditions  were  resolveil 
on? 

23.  What  forces  and  what  commanders  were  sent  against  Louisburg  ? 
What  was  the  issue  ? 

24.  What  was  the  result  of  the  attack  on  Ticonderoga  by  Abercrombie  ? 
What  was  done  by  Colonel  Bradstreet  and  General  Forbes  ? 

25.  To  whom  was  the  chief  command  given  after  the  disaster  at  Ticon- 

34 


398  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

deroga?     What  was  the  object  of  the  campaign  of  1759?     What  three 
divisions  were  now  made  of  tlic  British  army'? 

20.  ^V^lat  was  tlic  success  of  the  expeditions  against  Ticonderoga,  Crown 
Point,  and  Niagara  ? 

27.  To  whom  was  the  expedition  against  Quebec  inti-ustcd?  What  is 
said  of  this  place  ?  What  effect  had  tlic  difficulties  of  the  enterprise  on  the 
English  general  ?     With  what  force  did  he  approach  the  city  1 

28.  What  enterprise  did  he  accomplish  during  the  night  1  What  was 
the  issue  of  the  battle  that  followed'? 

29.  What  is  related  of  Wolfe  on  his  viewing  the  engagement,  after  lie 
had  received  a  fatal  wound  ?     Wliat  is  said  of  Montcalm  "? 

30.  By  what  was  this  battle  followed  ?  What  was  done  by  tho 
peace  of  Paris  in  1763"?  How  did  the  success  of  this  war  affect  the 
Colonies  1 


Sjection  III. 

1 .  What  is  said  of  the  colonists  1  Why  did  emigrants  leave  England  ? 
How  did  they  regard  the  parent  country  1 

2.  What  was  their  condition  at  the  peace  of  1763  ? 

3.  What  troubles  assailed  them  after  the  conquest  of  Canada  had  freed 
them  from  the  hostilities  of  the  French  and  Indians  ? 

4.  AYliat  had  been  the  effect  of  the  war  which  Great  Britain  had  earned 
on  in  defence  of  her  American  possessions  ?  What  was  the  pretext  for 
taxing  the  Colonies  ? 

5.  ^Vllat  was  maintained  respecting  this  matter  by  the  Colonies  ?  Wliat 
did  they  maintain  was  a  right  of  British  subjects  1 

6.  Wliat  measures  were  adopted  by  parliament  in  1764?  How  were 
these  proceedings  regarded  by  the  Colonies  ? 

7.  ^Vhat  act  was  passed  the  next  year?  On  what  did  the  Stamp  Act 
lay  a  duty  ?  What  was  done  by  the  Assembly  of  Virginia  ?  What  by 
Massachusetts  ? 

8.  What  took  place  in  Boston  when  the  news  of  the  Stamp  Act  amved  ? 
AVhat  in  New  York  ?     What  was  done  by  the  merchants  ? 

9.  When  arid  where  did  a  Colonial  Congress  meet  ?  What  measure  did 
this  Congress  adopt  ?  What  was  done  by  the  merchants  ?  What  was 
the  issue  i-espccting  the  Stamp  Act  ?  What  was  done  by  parliament  after 
a  change  in  the  British  cabinet  ? 

10.  What  act  was  passed  by  parliament  in  1767?  Wliat  was  done  t(? 
render  the  act  effectual  ?  What  was  another  arbitrary  measure  of  parlia- 
ment ? 

11.  What  were  now  the  feelings  of  the  Americans  ?  "Wliat  aftVay  tool- 
place  on  the  5th  of  March  ?  How  was  the  funeral  of  the  deceased  con- 
ducted ?  What  was  the  result  of  the  trial  of  Captain  Preston  and  his  sol- 
diers ? 

12.  Who  was  appointed  prime  minister  of  England  in  1 770  ?  What  did 
the  British  ministry  intend  to  do  by  retaining  the  duty  of  three  pence  on 
tea  ?  What  were  the  Americans  determined  to  do  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
year  1771 ? 

13.  What  was  done  in  1772  by  the  representatives  of  Massachusetts? 
What  by  the  inhabitants  of  Boston  and  the  towns  generally  ? 

14.  "VVTiat  was  done  with  the  tea  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia?  In 
Boston  ? 

i5.  ^Vhat  place  was  considered  the  chief  seat  of  rebellion?  What  was 
the  act  called  the  Boston  Port  Bill  ?     What  was  its  effect  ? 

16.  With  what  authority  did  General  Gage  arrive  in  Boston?  What 
»oon  followed  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES.  899 

17.  What  measures  were  adopted  in  Massachnscfts  to  prepare  for  the 
contest  ? 

18.  Wliat  was  done  by  the  General  Court  of  Massaclmsctts  1 

19.  When  and  where  did  the  Continental  Conjjre.ss  meet?  Of  whom 
was  this  Conjiress  composed  ?     What  measures  did  they  adopt? 

20.  Wliat  is  said  of  the  power  of  (Jreat  Britain?  What  was  the  condi- 
tion of  the  Colonies?  By  what  were  their  operations  especially  emljar- 
rasscd  ?  How  was  their  resolution  to  engage  in  the  contest  regarded  in 
England? 

21 .  What  was  done  wlicn  the  proceedings  of  the  Congress  were  laid  before 
parliament?     To  what  number  was  the  IJritish  ai-my  increased? 

22.  What  was  the  purjiort  of  Lord  North's  roiiciliatory  jiroposilion  ?  "Wliat 
\?ns  the  design  of  it  ?     How  was  it  received  ? 

23.  For  what  olyect  did  General  Gage  send  a  party  of  troops  to  Salem  ? 
Wlio  were  sent  to  seize  the  military  stores  at  Concord  ?  What  account  is 
given  of  the  affair  at  Lexington  ? 

24.  What  was  done  by  tlie  British  troops  after  having  dispersed  the  mi- 
litia at  Lexington  ?     What  took  jdace  on  their  return  ? 

25.  Wliat  was  now  done  by  the  Americans  ?     What  nrmy  was  raised  '^ 

26.  Wliat  fortresses  were  secured,  and  by  whom  ? 

27.  Wliat  was  done  by  the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  ? 

28.  When  and  where  did  the  second  Continental  Congress  meet  ?  What 
did  they  recommend  ? 

29.  What  generals  arrived  with  British  troops  ?  Wliat  measure  was 
now  adopted  ?     Who  were  excepted  from  the  offer  of  pardon  ? 

30.  Eor  what  purpose  was  Colonel  Prescott  ordered  to  throw  up  a  breast- 
work on  Bunker  Hill  ?  How  far  had  the  work  proceeded  before  it  was 
discovered  ?  i 

31.  With  what  force  did  General  Howe  make  an  attack  on  the  works  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  defence  of  the  Americans  ?  What  losses  were  sus- 
tained on  each  side  ?  What  was  done  by  the  British  while  their  troops 
were  advancing  ? 

32.  What  measures  were  now  adopted  by  Congress  ?  Wlio  was  chosen 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army  ?  What  is  said  of  Washington  ?  Where 
did  he  establish  his  head-quarters? 

33.  AVhat  other  chief  officers  were  appointed  ? 

34.  "WH 10  were  sent  on  an  expedition  to  Canada?  On  whom  did  the 
chief  eomniand  devolve  ? 

3.5.  What  was  accomplished  by  Arnold  ?  What  was  the  issue  of  the 
attack  on  Quebec  ? 

36.  What  took  place  in  Virginia  during  these  operations  in  the  north  ? 
What  was  done  by  Lord  Dunmore  ? 

37.  From  what  other  States  were  the  royal  governors  expelled  ?  What 
were  tiro  adherents  of  Great  Britain  called  ?  What  is  said  of  them  ?  By 
whom  was  General  Gage  succeeded  ? 

38.  What  is  said  of  the  Amei'ican  army  investing  Boston  ?  Wliat  did 
Washington  resolve  to  do  in  the  latter  part  of  the  winter  ?  What  measures 
were  adopted  ? 

39.  What  prevented  IIowc  from  attacking  the  works'?  What  took 
place? 

40.  What  attack  was  made  by  Sir  Peter  Parker  ?  What  was  the  re- 
sult ? 

41.  Wliat  was  the  effect  produced  in  England  by  the  news  of  the  battle 
of  Bunker  Hill  ?  What  measures  did  the  ministry  adopt?  To  what  did 
the  force  dcstincil  to  America  amount? 

42.  Wiiat  had  hitherto  been  the  object  of  the  controversy  ?  What  did 
the  Colonics  now  begin  to  think  of  doing  ?  What  publication  contributed 
to  bring  about  a  great  change  in  the  public  mind  ?    By  whom  was  the 


400  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

motion  in  Congress  made  for  declaring  the  Colonies  free  and  independent  1 
Of  whom  did  the  committee  for  preparing  the  Declaration  consist?  Ho^ 
and  when  was  the  vote  csuTicd  ? 

43.  How  does  the  Declaration  conclude  1 


Section  IV. 

1 .  Wliat  did  Washington  suppose  would  be  a  favorite  object  with  Gen- 
eral Howe  f     What  measure  was  adopted  ? 

2.  Whither  did  Sir  William  Howe  sail,  after  evacuating  Boston  ?  What 
soon,  after  took  place  1  What  is  said  of  the  number  of  the  British 
troops  ?     What  of  the  American  army  ? 

3.  What  attcm])t  was  made  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation?  What 
terms  were  proposed  ?     What  other  occurrences  took  place  ? 

4.  Where  did  an  engagement  take  place  ?  By  wliom  were  the  Ameri- 
cans commanded  ?  What  were  the  issue  and  the  losses  ?  How  was  the 
retreat  of  the  Americans  effected  ? 

5.  What  was  Washington's  next  movement?  What  fort  was  reduced 
by  Howe  ?     Of  what  were  the  British  now  possessed  ? 

6.  Wliat  retreat  did  Washington  now  make?  What  was  now  done 
by  the  British  troops  ? 

7.  Wliat  was  now  the  aspect  of  American  affairs,  and  the  state  of  the 
army  ?  What  other  misfortunes  had  occurred  ?  How  large  an  army 
had  Washington?  What  else  took  place  unfavorable  to  the  American 
cause  ? 

8.  What  account  is  given  of  Washington's  attack  on  Trenton?  What 
was  his  next  exploit  ?     What  was  the  effect  of  these  measures  ? 

9.  What  measures  did  Congress  adopt  at  this  period? 

10.  What  was  done  by  General  Howe  in  March  and  April  of  1777? 

11.  Of  what  did   the  American  army  now   consist?     Wliat  measure 
was  adopted  by  Howe?     What  movement  was  made  by  Washington?/ 
What  battle  followed  ?     What  were  the  losses  ? 

12.  What  was  done  by  Howe  after  this  battle?  What  account  is 
given  of  the  battle  of  Germantown  ?  Wliat  was  then  done  by  the  Brit 
ish  army  ? 

13.  Wlio  invaded  the  States  through  Canada?  What  advantages  did 
General  Burgoyne  gain  ? 

14.  For  what  purpose  did  he  send  a  detachment  to  Bennington?  What 
was  the  issue  ?     Wliat  took  place  on  the  Mohawk  ? 

15.  Wliere  did  Burgoyne  encamp  with  his  forces?  Wlio  had  now 
the  command  of  the  American  army  in  the  north  ?  What  losses  were 
sustained  in  the  battle  of  Stillwater  ?  How  was  the  British  army  soon 
after  situated  ? 

16.  What  did  Burgoyne  do  in  this  exigency?  What  measure  was  he 
next  compelled  to  adopt  ?     What  number  was  surrendered  ? 

17.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  surrender  of  BurgojTie?  Who  had 
been  sent,  in  1776,  to  France,  to  solicit  assistance?  What  was  their 
success  ?     What  was  done  after  the  suiTcnder  of  Bui'goyne  ? 

18.  How  were  the  Britisji  ministry  affected  by  these  events?  What 
measures  were  adopted  ?     What  was  the  issue  ? 

19.  WTio  succeeded  General  Howe  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  Brit- 
ish army  ?  What  did  the  British  now  determine  to  do  ?  What  events 
followed  ? 

20.  How  large  was  the  French  fleet  under  Count  d'Estaing?  What 
plan  was  now  concerted  ?  Wliat  account  is  given  of  the  engagement  on 
Rhode  Island?  Wliat  was  done  by  the  French  fleet?  What  town 
was  taken  by  the  British  in  December  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES.  401 

21.  Wliat  chang:e  was  made  in  the  theatre  of  tlie  war  in  17791  What 
is  said  of  the  operations  ?  By  what  were  the  exertions  of  the  Americans 
enfeebled  ? 

22.  What  was  done  by  Collier  and  Matthews  1     "Wliat  by  Tryon  ? 

23.  What  account  is  given  of  the  achievement  of  General  Wayne  1 
Of  General  Lovell  ?     Of  General  Sullivan  1 

2-1.  What  measure  was  taken  by  General  Lincoln?  Wliat  was  the 
result  ?  What  was  the  issue  of  the  attack  made  on  the  English  in  Savan- 
nah ? 

2.5.  What  State  was  the  principal  theatre  of  the  war  in  17801  What 
account  is  given  of  the  siege  of  Charleston  by  Clinton  ?  Who  was  left 
to  command  the  British  troojis  in  the  .south  ? 

2G.  What  measures  were  taken  to  secure  the  obedience  of  the  interior 
country  to  the  liritish  1     What  events  took  ])lace  ? 

27.  Who  now  took  the  command  of  the  southern  American  army  in 
place  of  General  Lincoln  1  What  account  is  given  of  the  battle  of 
Camden  ? 

28.  Wliat  French  fleet  and  army  arrived ?     "Wliat  is  said  of  them? 

29.  What  treacherous  plot  did  General  Arnold  fonn  ?  What  facts  aro 
related  respecting  Arnold  ?     IIow  was  his  design  frustrated  ? 

30.  What  is  said  of  Alajor  Andre  ?     What  became  of  Arnold  ? 

31.  What  is  said  of  the  .operations  of  the  war  in  1781?  Wliat  was 
done  by  Arnold  ? 

32.  Who  was  now  appointed  to  command  the  southern  American 
anny  ?     What  is  related  respecting  the  battle  of  the  Cow- Pens  ? 

33.  What  account  is  given  of  the  battle  near  Guilford  court-house? 
WHiat  took  place  at  Camden  ?  "Wliat  account  is  given  of  the  battle  of 
Eutaw  Spi-ings? 

34.  Wliat  course  did  Cornwallis  take  after  the  battle  of  Guilford? 
Where  did  he  encamp  and  fortify  himself? 

3.5.  "What  measure  had  been  concerted  by  the  American  officei"s  ?  On 
whom  was  it  finally  resolved  to  make  an  attack  ?  How  was  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  prevented  from  sending  assistance  to  Cornwallis  ? 

36.  What  course  did  Washington  now  pursue? 

37.  Wliat  measure  was  adopted  by  Clinton?  What  was  done  in  Con- 
necticut ? 

38.  What  good  news  did  Washington  hear  at  Chester?  What  was 
the  issue  of  the  engagement  between  the  English  and  French  fleets?  To 
what  did  Washington's  force  now  amount? 

39.  Wliat  was  the  effect  of  the  attack  of  the  Americans  on  the  Brit- 
ish army?  When  did  Cornwallis  propose  a  cessation  of  hostilities? 
Wliat  was  the  number  of  prisoner's  that  surrendered  ? 

40.  How  was  the  news  of  this  surrender  received  ?  What  expressions 
of  gratitude  were  made  by  the  army  and  by  Congress? 

41 .  WHiat  is  said  of  the  subsequent  military  operations  ?  Wliat  changes 
were  m.ade  in  the  British  cabinet  and  in  the  command  of  the  British 
army?  ^V^lcn  were  provisional  articles  of  peace  signed?  When,  where, 
and  by  whom  was  the  definitive  treaty  of  peace  concluded  ? 

42.  'What  is  said  of  the  war  ?     What  did  it  cost  Great  Britain  ? 


Section   V. 

1.  What  difficulties  arose  when  the  American  anny  was  about  to  bo 
vlisbanded  ?  To  what  expedient  had  Congress  been  driven?  How  had 
the  army  been  paid,  and  what  was  their  condition  ? 

2.  Why  had  the  officers  remained  quiet,  and  why  were  they  now 
alarmed  ?  What  took  place  with  regard'  to  that  portion  stationed  at 
Newburg  ? 

31  * 


402  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

3.  What  did  Wasliin<j;ton  do  at  this  crisis  ? 

4.  "VVliat  ctVcct  had  this  speech  ui)on  the  officers?  Wliat  measnrefl 
did  Congress  adojjt  ] 

5.  In  what  manner  did  Wasliington  resign  his  command  1 

6.  After  the  return  of  jicacc,  liow  was  the  government  under  the  Arti- 
cles of  Confederation  fonnd  ?     What  was  the  state  of  the  paper  currency'? 

7.  In  wliat  jjroportion  to  their  nominal  value  were  the  army  notes  sold? 
Wlio  were  the  suflerers  hy  this  depreciation  ? 

8.  When  and  where  did  commissioners  meet  to  form  a  system  of 
commercial  regulations?     What  measure  did  they  adopt? 

9.  When  did  the  delegates  meet  at  Philadelphia?  When  was  the 
Constitution  unanimously  agreed  to  hy  them  ?  What  measure  was  then 
taken  respecting  it  ?  When  was  it  ratified  by  eleven  of  the  States  ?  By 
what  States  was  it  not  at  first  adopted  ? 

10.  Who  was  unanimously  chosen  first  president?  What  is  said  of 
his  journey  to  New  York  ? 

11.  When  was  he  inaugurated  ?     What  is  said  of  the  ceremony? 

12.  How  was  the  nation  aflected  by  this  event?  What  is  said  of  his 
qualifications  ?  Who  was  elected  vice-president  ?  Who  were  the  other 
principal  otficers  ? 

13.  What  beneficial  efi'ects  were  soon  felt? 

14.  Over  whom  did  the  Indians  north  of  the  Ohio  obtain  victories  in 
1790  and  1791  ?  Who  routed  them,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  at  Green- 
ville? 

15.  In  what  other  difiiculties  were  the  United  States  now  involved? 
What  were  the  feelings  of  a  large  portion  of  the  community  ?  What 
was  the  policy  of  Washington's  administration  ? 

16.  What  did  Washington  do  near  the  end  of  the  second  term  of  hia 
administration  ?     By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ? 

17.  What  course  was  pursued  by  the  French  revolutionary  govern- 
ment ?  How  did  the  American  government  act  ?  What  soon  after  took 
place  ? 

18.  What  particulars  are  mentioned  respecting  Washington's  death? 
Wliat  effect  was  produced  by  the  news?  How  was  his  death  noticed 
throughout  the  country  ? 

19.  What  parties  arose  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution ?  How  were  they  afterwards  generally  designated  ?  How  did 
these  parties  differ  ?     What  is  said  of  the  treaty  negotiated  by  Mr.  Jay  ? 

20.  What  measures  of  Mr.  Adams's  administration  excited  most  dis 
satisfaction?     What  change  took  place  in  1801  ? 


Section  VI. 

1.  What  was  the  great  measure  of  the  first  term  of  Mr.  Jefferson's 
administration?  What  sum  was  paid  for  Louisiana?  What  is  said 
of  the  history  of  Louisiana  ? 

2.  What  was  the  state  of  the  country  when  Mr.  Jefferson  became  presi- 
dent ?     What  is  said  of  parties,  and  of  his  reelection  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  war  between  Great  Britain  and  France  ?  How 
was  America  affected  by  it  ? 

4.  What  measure  did  the  British  government  adopt  in  1806?  What 
did  the  French  Berlin  Decree  declare  ?  What  was  the  effect  of  the 
British  Orders  in  Council  ?  AVhat  was  the  import  of  Bonaparte's  Milan 
Decree  ? 

5.  What  measure  was  recommended  by  Mr.  Jefferson,  and  adopted 
by  Congress  ?  What  was  thfe  design  of  this  measure  ?  What  was  th« 
effect  ?     What  was  substituted  in  its  stead  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES.  403 

6.  What  was  the  condition  of  tlic  trade  of  the  United  States  ? 

7.  \Vli:it  species  of  injury  did  the  United  States  suifcr  exclusively 
from  Britain  ;     What  is  said  on  tliis  .siilyect  ? 

8.  What  conijjlaint  did  tiie  British  make  ?  What  is  said  of  this  prac- 
tice ? 

9.  To^what  vessels  had  tlie  custom  of  scarcliing  for  British  seamen 
been  confined  1  'What  account  is  given  of  the  attack  on  the  American 
frigate  Chesapeake  ? 

10.  How  was  tliis  outrage  regarded?     What  measures  were  adopted? 

11.  By  whom  was  Mr.  Jeflf'crson  succeeded?  'WHiat  took  place  at  the 
commencement  of  Mr.  Madison's  administration  ?  What  is  related  of 
Mr.  Jackson  ?     Between  what  vessels  of  war  did  a  rencounter  take  pla<'e  ? 

12.  Under  what  circumstances  did  Congress  meet  in  Maj',  1812  ?  What 
did  Mr.  Madison  state  as  tiic  principal  grounds  of  war  ? 

13.  How  was  the  bill  passed?  Wliat  took  place  five  days  after  tlio 
declaration  ? 

14.  On  wliat  ground  did  the  minority  oppose  the  war?  How  was  it 
with  the  people  ? 

15.  Under  what  circumstances  was  the  war  commenced? 

16.  Wliat  is  relat> '1  respecting  General  Hull's  invasion  of  Canada? 
Wliat  is  said  of  Genei  1  Van  Kensselacr's  attempt  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  ttie  success  of  the  Americans  on  the  ocean?  What 
naval  victories  were  gained  ? 

18.  By  wliom  was  General  Winchester  defeated?  Wliat  became  of 
about  500  prisoners  ? 

19.  What  is  related  of  General  Pike?     What  of  Colonel  Dudley? 

20.  By  whom  were  the  British  repulsed  at  Sackett's  Harbor?  By  whom 
was  Fort  George  in  Canada  taken  ?     What  followed  ? 

21.  What  is  related  of  PeiTy's  achievement  on  Lake  Erie? 

22.  What  was  done  by  General  Han-ison  ?  What  is  stated  respecting 
this  action  ? 

23.  What  is  said  of  the  preparations  against  Canada  under  Wilkinson 
and  Hampton  ?  What  villages  were  burnt?  What  is  related  of  Admiral 
Cockburn  ? 

24.  Wliat  naval  engagements  took  place  this  year? 

25.  WTiat  is  said  of  the  campaign  of  1814?  What  is  related  of  the 
battle  of  Chippewa  ?     What  of  the  battle  of  Bridgewater? 

26.  With  how  large  an  army  did  Sir  George  Prevost  advance  to  Platts- 
burg  ?  Who  commanded  the  British  naval  force  on  Lake  Champlain  ? 
By  whom  was  Downic  defeated  ?  By  whom  was  Sir  George  Prevost  re 
pulsed  ?     What  were  the  losses  ? 

27.  How  numerous  an  army  under  General  Ross  landed  in  the  Patux 
ent  ?  What  was  accomplished  by  them  ?  By  whom  was  an  attemj)! 
made  on  Baltimore  ?     What  was  the  issue  ? 

28.  What  naval  operations  took  place  ? 

29.  What  is  said  respecting  the  connection  of  this  war  with  that  whicli 
had  been  raging  in  Eurojic  ?  AVHicii  and  where  was  a  treaty  of  peace 
signed  ? 

30.  What  was  done  liy  the  British  while  this  negotiation  was  in  progress  ? 
By  whom  were  the  British  repulsed  ?     What  losses  were  sustained  ? 

31.  What  Avas  the  condition  of  tlie  Northeastern  States  in  1814? 
What  was  proposed  by  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  ?  What  con- 
vention met  ?     What  was  the  result  ? 

32.  What  is  related  of  the  treaty  of  Ghent  ?  AVhat  might  occur  iu 
case  Great  Britain  should  be  again  engaged  in  a  European  war? 

33.  What  is  said  respecting  war  as  a  metliod  of  settling  national  dis" 
putes  ? 

34.  By  whom  was  Mr.  Madison  succeeded?  What  is  said  of  hia 
reSlection  ? 


404  THE  UNITED  STATES 

35.  What  was  the  state  of  the  country  during  Mr.  Monroe's  adminis< 
tration  ? 
3G.  When,  and  for  wliat  sum,  was  Florida  ceded  to  the  United  States? 

37.  What  is  said  of  the  admission  of  the  State  of  Missouri  into  the 
Union  ?     How  did  tlic  bill  pass  ?     What  declaration  accompanied  it"? 

38.  Wliat  is  related  of  the  visit  of  General  Lafayette?  What  was 
done  for  him  by  Congress  ? 

39.  By  whom  was  Mi".  Monroe  succeeded  ?  Wlio  were  the  candidates 
for  the  presidency?     How  many  votes  did  each  receive? 

40.  What  was  the  state  of  the  country  during  Mr.  Adams's  administra- 
tion ?     Wliat  is  said  of  the  policy  pursued  ? 

41 .  What  is  related  respecting  the  Cherokee  and  Creek  Indians  ? 

42.  What  course  did  the  Indians  take  ?     What  was  afterwards  done  ? 

43.  What  is  said  of  the  new  tariff'  law,  and  the  principle  of  a  pro- 
tective tariff? 

44.  What  is  related  respecting  John  Adams  and  Thcflnas  Jefferson? 

Section  VII. 

1.  By  whom  was  Mr.  Adams  succeeded?  "Ff  :  what  had  General 
Jackson  been  distinguished  ? 

2.  By  what  was  Jackson's  administration  signalized?  What  bills  did 
he  return  with  a  veto  ? 

3.  What  measures  were  adopted  in  South  Carolina  ? 

4.  What  was  then  done  by  President  Jackson  ?  What  by  the  governor 
of  South  Carolina?     What  was  the  next  measure  of  the  president? 

5.  What  afterwards  took  place,  and  what  was  the  result  ? 

6.  What  was  done  by  President  Jackson  soon  after  he  was  elected  for 
a  second  term?  What  course  was  taken  by  Mr.  Duane  and  by  Mr. 
Taney  ?     Wliat  was  done  by  the  Senate  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  difRculties  with  Trance?  Wliat  was  done  by 
France  ? 

8.  WTiat  is  related  respecting  the  fire  in  New  York  ? 

9.  What  did  the  debt  of  the  United  States  amount  to  in  1816?  When 
was  it  all  paid  off?  What  surplus  revenue  was  there  in  the  treasury  in 
1 837  ?     What  was  done  with  it  ? 

10.  Wliat  is  related  respecting  the  Seminole  Indians?  What  did  the 
expenses  of  this  war  amount  to  ? 

11.  By  whom  was  Jackson  succeeded?  Wliat  is  said  of  Mr.  Van 
Buren  ? 

12.  Wliat  is  said  of  the  commercial  revulsion,  causes,  and  effects? 

13.  What  course  did  the  banks  take?  What  was  the  condition  of  the 
mercantile  classes  ? 

14.  How  was  the  government  involved  in  the  embaiTassment  ?  What 
measures  were  taken  by  the  president  and  by  Congress?  When  did  the 
banks  resume  specie  ]iayment  ? 

15.  What  is  said  of  the  rebellion  in  Canada  ?  Wliat  American  citizens 
took  part  in  it  ?     What  was  done  by  the  president  ? 

16.  By  whom  was  Mr.  Van  Buren  succeeded?  What  is  said  of  Gen- 
eral Harrison  ? 

17.  ^Vllat  is  related  respecting  the  election  of  Harrison?  Who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  presidency  on  the  death  of  Harrison  ?  What  is  said  of 
President  Tyler  ? 

18.  What  acts  were  passed  by  Congress  in  an  exti'a  session?  What 
course  was  taken  by  the  president  ?     What  was  the  consequence  ? 

19.  Wliat  law  was  enacted  in  1842  ?     Wliat  is  said  of  it? 

20.  What  is  said  respecting  the  northeastern  boundary  of  the  United 
States  ?     When  and  how  was  the  matter  .adjusted  ? 


THE   UNITED   STATES.  4(» 

21.  Wliat  was  one  of  the  last  measures  of  Mr.  Tyler's  administration? 
How  was  Texas  annexed,  and  by  what  vote "? 

22.  By  whom  was  Tyler  suceeeded  ?     What  is  said  of  the  election  ? 

23.  What  measures  were  stron{i;ly  favored  by  the  party  that  supported 
Mr.  Polk  ?     What  course  did  the  president  fake  1 

24.  What  is  said  of  the  northwestern  boundary  f  How  was  the  matter 
adjusted  ? 

25.  AV'liat  tai-iff  law  was  passed  on  the  president's  recommendation  ? 

26.  What  did  the  war  with  Mexico  grow  out  of  J  What  is  related  re- 
specting Texas?     What  was  done  by  the  Mexican  minister? 

27.  What  is  said  of  the  boundaries  of  Texas  ?  What  were  the  boun- 
daries contended  for  by  the  different  parties  ?  What  took  place  on  the 
disputed  territory  ? 

28.  What  was  done  by  the  legislature  of  Texas  in  1845?  What  was 
then  done  ? 

29.  Where  was  General  Taylor  wth  his  army  in  March,  1846  ?  AVhere 
Avas  he  ordered  to  proceed  ?     What  were  his  next  movements  ? 

oO.  What  is  said  of  the  Mexican  force  that  was  assembled  ?  What  was 
done  by  General  Arista  on  the  24th  of  April  ?  What  took  place  on  the 
same  day  ? 

•'51.  "VVliat  was  done  a  few  days  aftei-wards  by  the  Mexicans  and  by 
General  Taylor  ?     What  was  the  result  ? 

32.  What  is  related  of  the  battle  of  Palo  Alto,  and  the  losses  ? 

33.  What  took  place  the  following  day  ?     What  next  followed  ? 

34.  What  is  said  of  the  effect  produced  by  the  news  of  Captain  Thorn- 
ton's disaster  at  Washington?  Wliat  course  did  the  president  take? 
What  did  Congress  do?  What  did  the  whig  members  attempt  to  do? 
By  what  vote  did  the  bill  pass  ? 

"35.  What  is  said  of  the  feeling  against  the  war?  What  vote  was 
passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives  ? 

36.  How  was  General  Taylor's  force  increased  ?  What  meastires  were 
taken  ? 

37.  What  is  related  respecting  the  attack  on  Monterey  ? 

38.  When  was  the  city  assaulted  ?  What  was  the  result  ?  What  next 
followed  ? 

39.  What  is  related  respecting  General  Santa  Anna?  Wliat  course 
was  it  expected  he  would  take  ?  What  was  done,  and  what  was  the  re- 
sult ? 

40.  What  course  did  the  American  government  now  resolve  to  take  ? 
Who  was  ordered  to  take  the  chief  command  ? 

41.  What  is  said  respecting  the  armistice  concluded  by  General  Tay- 
lor ?     W[r.\t  then  followed  ?    What  was  done  by  General  Scott  ? 

42.  What  was  now  done  1iy  General  Taylor  ?  What  did  he  soon  learn 
respecting  Santa  Anna?     What  course  did  General  Taylor  then  take  ? 

43.  What  is  related  respecting  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista?  What 
were  the  losses  on  both  sides  ? 

44.  What  is  related  respecting  General  Scott's  attack  on  Vera  Cniz, 
and  its  resiUt  ? 

45.  'What  course  did  the  American  army  then  take?  What  took 
place  at  Ccrro  Gordo  ? 

46.  "WHiat  was  the  issue  of  this  assault?  What  were  the  losses  of  the 
Mexicans,  and  the  Americans  ? 

47.  By  what  was  the  victory  of  CeiTO  Gordo  followed  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  state  of  the  aiTny  ? 

48  When  and  with  "what  force  did  General  Scott  march  from  Puebla  1 
What  two  battles  were  fought  1  What  is  stated  respecting  the  battle  of 
Contreras?  What  of  Churubusco  ?  What  does  General  Scott  say  of 
the  achievements  of  tlic  American  army  ■* 


406  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

49.  What  was  the  effect  of  these  victories  ?    What  course  was  then 
adopted  ? 

50.  What  is  said  of  Mr.  Trist,  and  what  was  done  by  him  ?     What 
was  the  result,  and  what  followed  1 

51.  What  military  operation  took  place  the  following  day?    What  was 
the  loss  on  each  side  1 

52.  Wliat  is  said  of  tlie  storming  of  the  fortress  of  Chapultepecl     Wliat 
was  then  done  by  the  Americans'? 

53.  Wliat  was  then  done  by  the  Mexican  army,  and  by  the  Americans  ? 

54.  What  was  the  total  loss  of  General  Scott's  army  in  these  l)attles'? 
What  was  the  number  of  American  troops  that  took  the  city  of  Mexico  ? 

55.  "Wliat  expedition  was  conducted  by  General  Kearny  ? 

56.  Wliat  is   said  of  his  march  and   conquest?     Wliat  measures  did 
ho  then  adopt  ? 

57.  What  is  related  of  Colonel  Doniphan?     What  of  the  contest  at 
Bracito  ? 

58.  What  took  place  at  the  Pass  of  Sacramento  ?     Wliat  followed  ? 

59.  Wliat  is  related  respecting  Colonel  Fremont?     What  was  done 
when  the  existence  of  the  war  with  Mexico  was  heard  of? 

60.  What  was  done  soon  after  the  conquest  of  the  city  of  Mexico  by 
General  Scott?     What  was  the  result? 

61.  What  provinces  were   ceded  by  Mexico   to  the   UniTed   States? 
What  does  the  territory  acquired  amount  to  ? 

62.  What  sum  did  the  United  States  engage  to  pay  to  Mexico  ? 

63.  What  is  said  of  the  discovery  of  gold  mines  ?     What  consequence 
has  followed  this  discovery  ? 

64.  What  is  said  of  the  progress  and  issue  of  the  war?     What  bene- 
ficial results  may  be  hoped  from  it  ? 

65.  By  whom  was  Mi:  Polk  succeeded  ?    What  is  said  of  the  election  ? 


TABLES. 

HiSTOET   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 

Which  were  some  of  the  first  settled  colonies  ? 

When  was  Virginia  settled,  and  by  whom  ?     New  York  ?     &c. 

When  was  the  Peace  of  Paris,  and  the  end  of  the  French  war  ? 

When  did  the  Revolutionary  War  begin  ?     Wlien  was  peace  restored  ? 

When  was  the  Declaration  of  Independence  ?  \Vlien  was  the  Constitu- 
tion adopted  ? 

Who  was  the  first  president  of  the  United  States  ?  Who  have  been  hia 
successors  ? 

When  did  Washington  become  president  ?    Adams  ?    &c. 

Events  of  the  Hevolutionaet  Wae. 

When  was  the  Stamp  Act  passed  ?  Wliat  other  events  took  place  be- 
fore the  meeting  of  the  first  Continental  Congress  ? 

When  did  the  Revolutionary  War  begin  ? 

"Wliat  other  events  took  place  the  same  year  ? 

"When  was  the  Declaration  of  Independence  made  ? 

^Vllat  battles  in  1776?  In  1777?  In  1778?  In  1779?  In  1780! 
In  1781? 

"When  was  the  surrender  at  Saratoga?    At  Yorktown  ? 

"When  was  peace  with  England,  and  independence  acknowledged  f 


CHRONOLOGY.  407 


CUEONOLOGY  OF  IMPROVEMENTS,  &C. 

Wlien  and  wlicre  was  tlie  first  college  in  the  Colonies  founded? 

What  otlier  collcgea  were  founded  in  the  17th  century? 

AVlien  and  where  was  jninting  introduced  into  the  Colonies  ? 

When  and  where  was  the  first  newspaper  published  ? 

When  and  where  was  the  first  medical  school  established? 

When  and  where  was  the  first  (juarto  15ible  printed  ? 

When  was  the  first  census  of  the  United  States  taken  ? 

When  was  the  first  steamboat  used  on  the  Hudson  ? 

When  was  the  Erie  Canal  completed  ?     The  Ohio  Canal  ? 

"When  were  several  important  railroads  opened  ? 

Wlien  was  the  use  of  the  magnetic  telegraph  introduced  ? 

Distinguished  Americans. 

Most  of  the  men  enumerated  in  the  Table,  in  the  17th  century,  and  some 
of  those  in  the  18th,  were  born  in  England.  Some  who  are  classed  as 
warriors  were  kno^vn  also  as  statesmen,  and  some  classed  as  statesmen 
were  likewise  distinguished  as  military  commanders. 

The  persons  enumerated  in  the  fourth  column  were  men  of  science  or 
litei'ature,  physicians,  historians,  poets,  artists,  &c. 


Population  of  the  United  States.  —  Remarks. 

Which  were  the  thirteen  original  States  ?     Wliat  States  added  ? 

From  what,  to  what,  number  did  the  population  of  the  United  States 
increase  from  1790  to  1840? 

From  what,  to  what,  number  did  the  slaves  increase  in  the  same  time  ? 

In  about  how  many  years  has  the  population  doubled  ? 

How  many  post-ofHces  were  in  the  United  States  in  1790?     In  1848? 

When  were  the  first  considerable  railroads  for  conveying  passengers 
opened  in  the  United  States  ? 

How  many  miles  of  railroad  were  in  use  in  1849  ? 

CHRONOLOGY. 

What  is  chronology  ?     What  is  said  respecting  eras  ? 

1.  How  did  the  Greeks  compute  time?  What  is  said  of  the  Olym- 
piads ? 

2.  How  did  the  Romans  reckon  time  ?     How  was  their  era  designated  f 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  Christian  era  ?  In  what  year  of  the  world,  ac- 
cording to  different  computations,  ilid  the  birth  of  Christ  take  place  ?  Which 
is  generally  adopted  in  English  literature  ?  When  did  computation  from 
the  Christian  era  begin  to  be  used  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Roman  or  Jul> m 
year  ?  How  great  a  deviation  from  the  true  time  had  been  occasioned 
in  1582  ?  What  was  done  by  ]^oi)e  Gregory  XIII.  ?  Wlien  was  the  New 
Style  first  used  in  England  ?     Wliat  change  was  occasioned  by  it  ? 

4.  Wliat  is  said  of  the  era  of  the  Ilegira  ? 

5.  What  era,  next  to  the  Christian  era,  is  most  used  in  tliis  country  ? 

SACRED  HISTORY. 

Of  what  do  the  historical  parts  of  the  Bible  chiefly  treat  ?  What  is 
the  other  principal  source  of  information  respecting  the  ancient  history  of 
tlic  Israelites  ?     When  does  the  Old  Testament  history  end? 


408  SACRED  HISTORY. 

What  is  said  of  tho  descent  of  the  Israelites? 

Why  were  they  culled  Hebrews,  Israelites,  and  Jews  ? 

What  is  related  resj)eeting  their  residence  in  Egj'pt? 

How  long  did  they  wander  in  the  wilderness  f 

How  long  were  they  governed  by  Judges  ? 

When  was  the  most  flourishing  period  of  the  monarehy  ? 

How  long  did  the  sceptre  of  Judah  continue  in  the  family  of  David 

What  is  said  of  the  tendency  of  the  Israelites  to  idolatry  ■? 

What  is  said  of  the  history  of  the  Ten  Tribes  subsequent  to  t 
captivity  by  Shalmanescr  1     When  did  the  Jews  return  from  Babylon 

By  whom  were  tliey  afterwards  governed  ?  When  were  they  subid 
to  the  Romans  ?     When  wag  Jerusalem  destroyed  1 


Chronological  Table  of  tub   Kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Jud 

How  long  did  the  kingdom  of  Israel  continue  undivided  ?     How  I 
did  the  kingdom  of  Judah  continue  1 

What  is  said  of  Saul  and  his  reign  ?     David  ?     Solomon  ' 

How  many  years  did  Saul  reign  ?     David  1     &c. 

Who  was  the  first  king  of  Judah  1     ^Vlio  the  last  ? 

What  is  said  of  Kehoboam,  or  of  his  reign  ?     Abijah  ?     &.C. 

What  prophets  flourished  between  1100  and  1000  years  B.  C-f 

Between  1000  and  900  1     Bet^veen  900  and  800  ?  '  &c. 


OURONOLOGICAL     TaBLE      OF     THE     KINGDOM     OF     ISEAEL,     OB     1 

Ten   Tribes. 

How  long  did  the  kingdom  of  Israel  continue  1 
Who  was  the  first  king  1     Who  the  last  ? 
How  long  did  Jeroboam  I.  reign  ?     What  is  said  of  him  and  his  rei'- 
Nadab  1     &c. 

What  is  said  of  the  histoiy  of  the  Ten  Tribes  after  their  captivity' 


Eras  of  Modern  Histort. 

This  Table  exliibits  some  of  the  most  important  eras  in  Modem  E 
tory,  but  the  chronology  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  states  and  empires  m 
be  best  learned  from  the  Chart  of  Ilistori/. 

When  was  the  New  Empire  of  the  West  formed  1     &c.     " 

What  eras  or  events  are  mentioned  in  the  9th  century  ?    The  10th  ?    i 

Chronological  Table  of  Inventions. 

When  was  gunpowder  invented  ?     Printing  ?     The  solar  system 
vivedl     The   telescope   invented?     Thermometer?    Logarithms?     T 
Bteam-engine '    Inoculation  ?    Stereotype    printing  ?    Vaccination  ?    T 
steamboat?    Railroads?    The  magnetic  telegraph? 

What  inventions  or  improvements  were  made  in  the  10th  century? 
the  11th?    &c. 

THE    END.  ^ 


J 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL 


A     000  049  347 


